Effects of smoking on taste: Assessment with contact endoscopy and taste strips

Longitudinal trajectories and determinants of human fungiform papillae density

Tongue fungiform papillae contain taste buds crucial for taste and hormone-producing taste receptor cells; therefore, they may be considered as endocrine organs and have important age-associated physiological implications. We examine the cross-sectional and longitudinal trajectories of fungiform papillae density in 1084 participants from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging using linear regression models and mixed effects models. At baseline, the mean age was 67.86 ± 14.20 years, with a mean follow-up time among those with repeat visits of 4.24 ± 1.70 years. Women (53%) were younger (66.85 ± 13.78 vs. 69.04 ± 14.61 years, p < 0.001) and had a higher fungiform papillae density than men (16.14 ± 9.54 vs. 13.77 ± 8.61 papillae/cm², p < 0.001). Whites (67%) had a lower fungiform papillae density than non-Whites after adjusting for age and sex. Factors cross-sectionally associated with a lower fungiform papillae density included a higher waist-hip ratio (β = −8.525, p = 0.029), current smoking status (β = −5.133, p = 0.014), and alcohol use within the past 12 months (β = −1.571, p = 0.025). Longitudinally, fungiform papillae density decreased linearly with follow-up time (β = −0.646, p < 0.001). The rate of decline was not affected by sex, race, BMI, waist-hip ratio, smoking, or alcohol use. The longitudinal decline of fungiform papillae density over time needs to be explored further in order to identify other possible age-associated physiological determinants.

The effects of cigarette smoking on the salivary and tongue microbiome

Objectives

It has been suggested that smoking affects the oral microbiome, but its effects on sites other than the subgingival microbiome remain unclear. This study investigated the composition of the salivary and tongue bacterial communities of smokers and nonsmokers in periodontally healthy adults.

Methods

The study population included 50 healthy adults. The bacterial composition of resting saliva and the tongue coating was identified through barcoded pyrosequencing analysis of the 16S rRNA gene. The Brinkman index (BI) was used to calculate lifetime exposure to smoking. The richness and diversity of the microbiome were evaluated using the t‐test. Differences in the proportions of bacterial genera between smokers and nonsmokers were evaluated using the Mann–Whitney U test. The quantitative relationship between the proportions of genera and the BI was evaluated using Pearson's correlation analysis.

Results

The richness and diversity of the oral microbiome differed significantly between saliva and the tongue but not between smokers and nonsmokers. The saliva samples from smokers were enriched with the genera Treponema and Selenomonas. The tongue samples from smokers were enriched with the genera Dialister and Atopobium. The genus Cardiobacterium in saliva, and the genus Granulicatella on the tongue, were negatively correlated with BI values. On the other hand, the genera Treponema, Oribacterium, Dialister, Filifactor, Veillonella, and Selenomonas in saliva and Dialister, Bifidobacterium, Megasphaera, Mitsuokella, and Cryptobacterium on the tongue were positively correlated with BI values.

Conclusions

The saliva and tongue microbial profiles of smokers and nonsmokers differed in periodontally healthy adults. The genera associated with periodontitis and oral malodor accounted for high proportions in saliva and on the tongue of smokers without periodontitis and were positively correlated with lifetime exposure to smoking. The tongue might be a reservoir of pathogens associated with oral disease in smokers.

Associations between chronic cigarette smoking and taste function: Results from the 2013-2014 national health and nutrition examination survey

We identified associations between cigarette-smoking and taste function in the U.S. NHANES 2013-2014. Adults ≥ 40 years (n = 2849, nearly half former or current smokers) rated whole-mouth and tongue-tip bitter (1 mM quinine) and salt (1 M NaCl, 0.32 M NaCl) intensities and reported smoking history (pack years, PY), dependence (time to first cigarette, TTFC) and menthol/non-menthol use. Perceived intensity on the tongue-tip averaged just below moderate for quinine and moderate to strong for 1 M NaCl. Current chronic smokers (≥ 20 PY) reported lower bitter and salty intensities on the tongue-tip (β: -2.0, 95% CI: -3.7 to -0.4 and β: -3.6, 95% CI: -6.9 to -0.3, respectively) than never smokers. Similarly, compared to never smokers, dependent current smokers (TTFC ≤ 30 min) and dependent chronic smokers (≥ 20 PY, TTFC ≤ 30 min) rated less bitter (β: -2.0, 95% CI: -4.0 to 0.1 and β: -2.9, 95% CI: -4.5 to -1.3, respectively) and salty (β: -5.3, 95% CI: -9.3 to -1.4 and β: -4.7, 95% CI: -8.6 to -0.7, respectively) intensities on the tongue-tip. Depressed tongue-tip intensity in dependent smokers (with/without chronicity) versus never smokers was significant in younger (40-65 years), but not older (> 65 years) adults. Former smokers, non-chronic/less dependent smokers, and menthol smokers were more likely to report elevated whole-mouth quinine and 1 M NaCl intensities. Tongue-tip and whole-mouth taste intensity concordance varied between smokers and never smokers-current dependent smokers were more likely to rate tongue-tip quinine and NaCl lower than their respective whole-mouth tastants (OR: 1.8, 95% CI: 1.0 to 3.1 and OR: 1.8, 95% CI: 1.1 to 2.8, respectively). In summary, these U.S. nationally-representative data show that current smoking with chronicity and/or dependence associates with lower tongue-tip intensity for bitter and salty stimuli. Smokers with greater exposure to nicotine and/or dependence showed greater risk of taste alterations, with implications for diet- and smoking-related health outcomes.

Assessment of Taste Function

Taste disorders, impacting well-being and physical health, can be caused by many etiologies including the use of medication. Recently, taste disturbance is also considered as one of the predominant symptoms of COVID-19 although its pathogenesis requires further research. Localized taste disorders may be overlooked considering that whole-mouth taste perception is insured through several mechanisms. Individuals often fail to discern taste from flavor, and interviews/surveys are insufficient to properly assess taste function. Hence, various taste assessment methods have been developed. Among them, psychophysical methods are most widely applied in a clinical context. Less-biased electrophysiological, imaging, or morphological methods are used to a much lesser degree. Overall, more research is needed in the field of taste.

Smell, taste and trigeminal disorders in a 65-year-old population

BACKGROUND

Smell, taste and trigeminal disorders likely have a substantial impact on human daily life. However, data regarding the prevalence of these disorders in Norway are scarce. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of smell, taste, trigeminal disorders and associated factors in a 65-year-old population in Oslo, Norway.

METHODS

A random sample of 223 individuals (123 men, 100 women) participated in the study. Medical history was obtained, and unstimulated whole saliva (UWS) and stimulated whole saliva (SWS) were collected to determine salivary secretion rates. Sniffin`n Sticks and Taste Strips (Burghart Messtechnik GmbH, Wedel, Germany) were used for quantitative testing of olfactory and gustatory function. In addition, the participants' self-reported perceptions of smell and taste, and burning mouth sensation were investigated.

RESULTS

The results showed that 34 % of the participants had reduced smell (28 % hyposmia and 6 % anosmia) and 28 % had reduced taste perception (21 % hypogeusia and 7 % ageusia). 13 % of the partcipants had a combination of smell and taste disorders. Dysgeusia was reported by 5 % and burning mouth sensation (syndrome) by 3 % of the participants. Hyposmia, hypogeusia and ageusia were significantly more prevalent among men. Significant associations were found between taste disorders and previous history of cerebral hemorrhage and heart attack, and between burning mouth sensation and gastrointestinal disorders. Disturbances in olfactory, gustatory and trigeminal function were significantly related to medication use. Ageusia and burning mouth sensation were significantly more prevalent among smokers. Except from higher prevalence of ageusia among participants with hyposalivation with respect to SWS, no significant associations were found between salivary secretion rate and chemosensory or trigeminal disorders in the present study.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study revealed that one-third of 65-year-old individuals had impaired smell and more than one-fourth had impaired taste function. The prevalence of dysgeusia and burning mouth sensation was very low. Reduced smell and taste perception were more common among men than women. Furthermore, some diseases and medications were associated with chemosensory and trigeminal disorders. Ageusia was associated with SWS hyposalivation.

Relationship between taste perception and use of upper complete dentures

AIMS

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the taste perception in patients with upper complete dentures.

METHODS AND RESULTS

One hundred seventy male and female patients (45-83 years old) upper denture wearers were evaluated for their gustatory function by the paper strips technique in relation to the four basic tastes. The taste test was performed with and without the presence of the denture on the palate. Through Shapiro-Wilk and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests, the results were analyzed by their normal distribution. The t-test for paired samples was used to evaluate if there was a statistical difference on the taste perception and itself revealed that there is a significant difference (p < 0.01) when the taste perception was analyzed for the absence and presence of the prosthesis (alone and compared) (p < 0.01). The results revealed that patients with dentures had great difficulty to recognize the bitter taste, followed by the salty, sweet, and sour.

CONCLUSION

The presence of the denture was able to modify the perception of taste when compared to its absence, especially for the bitter taste.

Associations of Taste Perception with Tobacco Smoking, Marijuana Use, and Weight Status in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Habitual smoking of tobacco and marijuana can lead to weight changes and poor diet quality. These effects may be caused by taste changes related to smoking and marijuana use. This study examined the associations among taste perceptions of a bitterant (quinine) and salt, tobacco and marijuana use, and weight status. We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of adults who responded to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey in 2013-2014. Participants (n = 2808; female = 51.7%) were adults ≥40 years with an average body mass index (BMI) of 29.6 kg/m2. Participants completed whole mouth and tongue tip assessments of bitter (quinine) and salty (NaCl) tastes, and questionnaires on demographics, cigarette, tobacco, and drug use. Measured height and weight were used to calculate BMI. Compared with never smokers, current smokers reported increased bitter ratings. Smoking status was not associated with salty taste intensity ratings after adjustment for demographic variables. Current marijuana users reported lower tongue tip quine ratings than never users. Among current smokers, current marijuana users had lower whole mouth quinine ratings than never users. Taste perception for salt and quinine for current and former smokers as well as marijuana smokers varied in whole mouth and tongue tip assessment. Changes in taste perception among cigarette smokers and marijuana consumers may be clinically relevant to address to improve diet and weight status.

Correlation between Taste Threshold Sensitivity and MMP-9, Salivary Secretion, Blood Pressure, and Blood Glucose Levels in Smoking and Nonsmoking Women

Cigarette smoking can cause taste receptors to increase the taste threshold value. Consequently, the consumption of sugar and salt will not be controlled, therefore causing systemic diseases such as hypertension and diabetes. Nicotine and tobacco in cigarettes can stimulate MMP-9 which plays vital physiological roles in normal tissue growth and repair processes. This study aimed to find the correlation between taste threshold sensitivity and MMP-9, salivary secretion, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels in smoking and nonsmoking women. This was a cross-sectional study consisting of young adult women aged 18–24 years. Subjects were divided into two groups: the nonsmoking and smoking groups. In the combined data of both groups, the sweet taste threshold was correlated with age (r = 0.308, p=0.008), blood glucose levels (r = 0.238, p=0.043), and MMP-9 (r = –0.297, p=0.011). The salt taste threshold was only correlated with systolic blood pressure in the smoking (r = 0.440, p=0.032) and combined data groups (r = 0.260, p=0.026). By using partial correlation, it was shown that the relationship between the salt taste threshold and systolic blood pressure was influenced by smoking habits. The sweet taste threshold in women was found to correlate with age, blood glucose levels, and MMP-9 levels. On the other hand, there was a significant relationship between the salt taste threshold in women with systolic blood pressure, which was the only correlation analyzed in sthis study that was found to be influenced by smoking. However, both sweet and salt taste thresholds were not statistically correlated with salivary secretion.

Influences of Age, Sex and Smoking Habit on Flavor Recognition in Healthy Population

(1) Background: Flavor is one of the main factors influencing food preferences and dietary choices, and a reduction in flavor recognition has been associated with several diseases. A novel quantitative test to assess flavor has been recently developed and validated. The aim of the present work was to define the standard of flavor recognition in the general healthy population. (2) Methods: Three hundred and forty-eight healthy volunteers (18–80 years) performed the flavor test (FT). The test consisted of the oral administration of aqueous aromatic solutions, identifying 21 different compounds. Flavor score (FS) was calculated as the sum of the properly recognized flavors (range 0–21). (3) Results: Normal ranges for FT were produced. Flavor recognition was found to decrease with age. Females obtained slightly higher scores than males, mostly at older ages. Cigarette smoking seemed not to influence flavor recognition. (4) Conclusion: The normal values found for the flavor test in the healthy population will allow its usage as a diagnostic tool in several diseases.

Toxic exposures and the senses of taste and smell

This review addresses the adverse influences of neurotoxic exposures on the ability to smell and taste. These chemical senses largely determine the flavor of foods and beverages, impact food intake, and ultimately nutrition, and provide a warning for spoiled or poisonous food, leaking natural gas, smoke, airborne pollutants, and other hazards. Hence, toxicants that damage these senses have a significant impact on everyday function. As noted in detail, a large number of toxicants encountered in urban and industrial air pollution, including smoke, solvents, metals, and particulate matter can alter the ability to smell. Their influence on taste, i.e., sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and savory (umami) sensations, is not well documented. Given the rather direct exposure of olfactory receptors to the outside environment, olfaction is particularly vulnerable to damage from toxicants. Some toxicants, such as nanoparticles, have the potential to damage not only the olfactory receptor cells, but also the central nervous system structures by their entrance into the brain through the olfactory mucosa.

Neurolocalization of taste disorders

Neurolocalization of taste disorders requires a knowledge of the functional anatomy involved in mediating taste information from the peripheral mucosal surfaces through numerous peripheral cranial nerves to complex subcortical and cortical brain regions. Our understanding of this functional anatomy has advanced in recent years. Taste is an experience that is both innate and learned, and the "taste" experience involves the integration of information from other sensory modalities, such as olfaction and somatosensation. Normal taste perception is influenced by different neurophysiologic states, which involve endocrine function, emotions, and even attitudes and expectations toward eating. At its core, the normal effective ability to taste is a reflection of the proper function of many organ systems within the body and may be considered a marker for good health. Clinical taste disorders, on the other hand, involve the dysfunction of the normal neural taste pathways and/or aberrant influences on multisensory integration and cortical taste processing. The number of disease processes, which can adversely affect taste, are numerous and quite varied in their presentation. There may be contributory involvement of other organ systems within the body, and the appropriate management of taste disorders often requires a multidisciplinary approach to fully understand the disorder. Depending on the underlying cause, taste disorders can be effectively managed when identified. Treatments may include correcting underlying metabolic disturbances, eliminating infections, changing offending medications, replenishing nutritional deficiencies, operating on structural impairments, calming autoimmune processes, and even stabilizing electrochemical interactions.

Self-reported Smoking Status, TAS2R38 Variants, and Propylthiouracil Phenotype: An Exploratory Crowdsourced Cohort Study

TAS2R38 gene variants, which confer sensitivity to specific bitter tastants (e.g., 6-n-propylthiouracil), have been repeatedly associated with lower alcohol use via greater bitterness perception, but research exploring TAS2R38 variation in relation to smoking shows mixed results. In both, the working hypothesis is that 1 or more copies of the functional allele increases bitterness and may provide a barrier to early use. Such a barrier to initiation may, conceivably, manifest as differential rates of current use across diplotypes. Here, an age-diverse convenience sample (n = 886) of Denver Museum of Nature and Science guests was used to explore cross-sectional relationships between TAS2R38 diplotype, self-reported tobacco use (current, former, never smokers), and a rapid measure of 6-n-propylthiouracil phenotype (bitterness of filter paper discs). TAS2R38 diplotypes were determined by Sanger sequencing. After excluding rare diplotypes, data from 814 participants were analyzed. A mix of current (~10%), former (25%), and never smokers (65%) were included. As expected, there was a relationship between TAS2R38 diplotype and 6-n-propylthiouracil bitterness. However, contrary to our hypothesis, there was no evidence of a relationship between diplotype and smoker status among participants with common TAS2R38 diplotypes. Notably, we observed a relationship between of 6-n-propylthiouracil bitterness and smoking status, but the effect was opposite of what was expected: current smokers perceived higher (not lower) bitterness than never smokers. When all the various factors (diplotype, age, sex, and smoking status) were included in ANOVA, all remained predictive of 6-n-propylthiouracil bitterness. Reasons for greater phenotypic bitterness among current smokers are unknown and merit further study.

Olfactory and gustatory functions in patients with non-complicated type 1 diabetes mellitus

The aim of this study was to evaluate any possible relationship between diabetic state and olfactory and gustatory functions in patients with non-complicated diabetes mellitus type 1 (T1D), and also to present evidence of the association between olfactory and gustatory scores and HbA1c values and disease durations. The study included 39 patients with non-complicated T1D and 31 healthy controls. Clinical characteristics such as age, gender, duration of disease, education levels and biochemical analyses (fasting blood glucose, urea, creatinine, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein (HDL-C), triglyceride, HbA1c, C-peptide, postprandial blood glucose) were measured. Subjective olfactory and gustatory tests were performed for all participants. There were no significant differences in olfactory tests between the two groups (odor thresholds 8.63 ± 0.91 vs. 8.55 ± 0.57, p = 0.66; odor discrimination 12.97 ± 0.80 vs. 12.74 ± 0.79, p = 0.24; odor identification 13.81 ± 0.98 vs. 13.72 ± 0.89, p = 0.69; TDI score 35.34 ± 1.94 vs. 34.97 ± 1.4, p = 0.37). There were also no significant differences in gustatory tests between the two groups (bitter 3.45 ± 0.51 vs. 3.44 ± 0.50, p = 0.90; sweet 3.32 ± 0.48 vs. 3.38 ± 0.49, p = 0.60; salty 3.13 ± 0.72 vs. 3.10 ± 0.72, p = 0.88; total score of taste 13.16 ± 1.61 vs. 13.13 ± 1.22, p = 0.92). Comparison of gustatory and olfactory scores according to disease duration of type 1 diabetes mellitus patients revealed that there were no differences between groups (all p > 0.05). T1D without complications may not be associated with olfactory and gustatory dysfunction according to subjective testing. We also found that gustatory and olfactory functions may not be related with HbA1c values and disease duration in non-complicated T1D.

Perception of taste in HIV-positive individuals in treatment antiretroviral: results of a case-control study

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate the perception of taste in HIV-infected patients.

METHOD

One hundred males and females (11 to 60 years old) were divided into two groups (50 patients infected by HIV and 50 controls) and evaluated for gustatory function.

RESULTS

The results revealed that the mean score in the evaluation of taste was significantly lower in individuals with HIV when compared to controls for both sides of the tongue (p < 0.05). Patients with HIV infection had difficulty recognizing the bitter taste, followed by salty and sweet. When each side of the tongue was evaluated separately and compared, the Wilcoxon test showed that there was no significant difference on the tongue of individuals with HIV. The prevalence of hypogeusia was 20% in individuals with this disease.

CONCLUSIONS

Individuals with HIV infection may have a deficit in taste that can affect your general and oral health.

Subjective taste and smell changes in treatment-naive people with solid tumours

PURPOSE

Taste and smell changes (TSCs) are common in head and neck (H&N) cancer and during and after chemotherapy (CT) and radiotherapy (RT). It is an area that has been under-investigated, particularly in the treatment-naive, but can negatively impact nutritional status. This study examined the prevalence, severity and characteristics of TSCs in people with non-H&N solid tumours, before CT and RT, and their relationship with co-occurring symptoms.

METHODS

A prospective, observational study was conducted. Forty consecutive pre-treatment cancer patients, referred to radiation oncology outpatients over 6 weeks, were recruited. Data on TSCs, symptoms and nutritional status were obtained using the 'Taste and Smell Survey' and the 'abridged Patient-Generated Subjective Global Assessment' (abPG-SGA). BMI was measured. SPSS® was used for statistical analysis. Two-sided P values <0.05 were considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

Most patients were newly diagnosed (n = 28; 70 %). Nineteen (48 %) reported TSCs; nine noted a stronger sweet and seven a stronger salt taste. Of these, four reported a stronger and four a weaker smell sensation. Those at nutritional risk reported more TSCs (n = 13/20). TSCs were significantly associated with dry mouth (P < 0.01), early satiety (P < 0.05) and fatigue (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

TSCs preceded CT or RT in almost half of treatment-naive patients with solid tumours, notably stronger sweet and salt tastes. Half of the study group were at nutritional risk; the majority of these reported TSCs. TSCs were significantly associated with other symptoms. Future research and clinical guidelines, with a common terminology for assessment, diagnosis and management of cancer TSCs, are needed.

Multidimensional Evaluation of Endogenous and Health Factors Affecting Food Preferences, Taste and Smell Perception

OBJECTIVE

This study, by taking a holistic approach, investigates the relationships between taste, smell sensitivity and food preference with prognostic (endogenous and health) factors including age, gender, genetic taste markers, body mass, cigarette smoking, and number of drugs used.

DESIGN

Cross sectional study.

SETTING

Northern Italy.

PARTICIPANTS

203 healthy subjects (160 women/43 men; mean age: 58.2±19.8 years) were examined.

MEASUREMENTS

Individual taste sensitivity was determined by saccharose, sodium chloride, acetic acid and caffeine solutions and by 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) responsiveness test. Olfactory sensitivity has been assessed by «Sniffin' Sticks». Four tag Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in regions of interest were genotyped. Factor analysis and multivariate regression were performed for scaling food preferences and screening prognostic factors, respectively.

RESULTS

Increasing age is associated with decreased responsiveness to NaCl (P=0.001), sweet solutions (P=0.044), and smell perception (P<0.001). Concerning the food preferences, elderly like the "vegetables" and "fruits" but dislike "spicy" more than younger. Regarding number of drugs taken, there is a significant negative effect on smell perception (P<0.001). In addition, drugs reduce both the "vegetables foods" score (P=0.002) and the "milk-product foods" score (P=0.027). With respect to Body Mass Index (BMI), only a significant effect was shown, on sweet perception (P=0.006). Variation in taste receptor genes can give rise to differential perception of sweet, acid and bitter tastes. No effect of gender and smoking was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggested that age, genetic markers, BMI and drugs use are the factors which affect taste and smell perception and food preferences.

Changes in electrogustometry thresholds, tongue tip vascularization, density and form of the fungiform papillae in smokers

The objective of this study was to evaluate differences in gustatory function in smokers of both sexes and identify any differences in the shape, density and vascularisation of the fungiform papillae (fPap) of smokers' tongue. Additional aim was to investigate any relation between the age, pack years and differences in shape, density, vascularization of fPap and sex. In 166 smokers (81 males, 85 females, age range 20-80 years), divided in age groups, electrogustometry (EGM) thresholds at the chorda tympani area, at the soft palate area and at the area of the vallate papillae were recorded bilaterally. Morphology and density of the fPap and blood vessels' density and morphology at the tip of the tongue were examined using contact endoscopy (CE). EGM thresholds of all smoking subjects tended to increase compared to the non-smoking participants. Morphology, vascularization and density of fPap were found to be worse in smokers than in non-smokers. Interestingly, some participants, despite having increased number of pack years, tended to have almost similar EGM thresholds with non-smoking subjects of the same age group. Smoking tends to affect density, morphology and vascularization of the fPap. There is a correlation between the duration of smoking (pack years) and the afore-mentioned parameters. The use of τ-Kendall criterion provided useful information about the different correlation between the EGM thresholds and vascularization, the EGM thresholds and morphology of fPap and EGM thresholds and density of fPap. The majority of smokers had elevated EGM thresholds compared to non-smokers. Smoking is an important factor which can lead to decreased taste acuity. The combination of methods, such as EGM and CE, can provide useful information about the morphology and function of taste buds. Of interest, women are less affected than men, irrespective of the age group.

Factors related to fungiform papillae density: the beaver dam offspring study

The distribution of fungiform papillae density and associated factors were examined in the Beaver Dam Offspring Study. Data were from 2371 participants (mean age = 48.8 years, range = 21-84 years) with 1108 males and 1263 females. Fungiform papillae were highlighted with blue food coloring and the number of fungiform papillae within a standard 6-mm circle was counted. Whole mouth suprathreshold taste intensity was measured. The mean fungiform papillae density was 103.5 papillae/cm(2) (range = 0-212.2 papillae/cm(2)). For each 5-year increase in age, the mean fungiform papillae density was 2.8 papillae/cm(2) lower and the mean density for males was 10.2 papillae/cm(2) lower than for females. Smokers had significantly lower mean densities (former smokers: -5.1 papillae/cm(2); current smokers: -9.3 papillae/cm(2)) than nonsmokers, and heavy alcohol drinkers had a mean density that was 4.7 papillae/cm(2) lower than nonheavy drinkers. Solvent exposure was related to a significantly higher density (+6.8 papillae/cm(2)). The heritability estimate for fungiform papillae density was 40.2%. Propylthiouracil taster status, TAS2R38 haplotype, and perceived taste intensity were not related to density. In summary, wide variability in fungiform papillae density was observed and a number of related factors were found including the modifiable factors of smoking and alcohol consumption.

Taste intensity in the Beaver Dam Offspring Study

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS

To determine the distribution of the perceived intensity of salt, sweet, sour, and bitter in a large population and to investigate factors associated with perceived taste intensity.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional population.

METHODS

Subjects (n = 2,374; mean age, 48.8 years) were participants in the Beaver Dam Offspring Study examined during 2005 to 2008. Perceived taste intensity was measured using paper disks and a general labeled magnitude scale. Multiple linear regression was performed.

RESULTS

Mean intensity ratings were: salt = 27.2 (standard deviation [SD] = 18.5), sweet = 20.4 (SD = 15.0), sour = 35.7 (SD = 21.4), and bitter = 49.6 (SD = 23.3). Females and those with less than a college degree education rated tastes stronger. With adjustment for age, sex, and education, stronger perceived sour and bitter intensities were related to current smoking (sour: B = 2.8, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.4 to 5.2; bitter: B = 2.8, 95% CI, 0.3 to 5.4) and lipid-lowering medications (sour: B = 5.1, 95% CI, 2.5 to 7.6; bitter: B = 3.2, 95% CI, 0.6 to 5.8). Alcohol consumption in the past year was related to weaker salt (B = -2.8, 95% CI, -5.3 to -0.3) and sweet intensity ratings (B = -2.3, 95% CI, -4.3 to -0.3), whereas olfactory impairment was associated with higher sweet ratings (B = 4.7, 95% CI, 1.4 to 7.9).

CONCLUSIONS

Perceived intensities were strongest for bitter and weakest for sweet. Sex and education were associated with each taste, whereas age did not demonstrate a consistent relationship. Associations with other factors differed by tastants, with current smoking and alcohol consumption being related to some tastes.