Nucleobase-Mediated Stereospecific Radical Polymerization and Combination with RAFT Polymerization for Simultaneous Control of Molecular Weight and Tacticity

Harnessing Cytosine for Tunable Nanoparticle Self-Assembly Behavior Using Orthogonal Stimuli

Nucleobases control the assembly of DNA, RNA, etc. due to hydrogen bond complementarity. By combining these unique molecules with state-of-the-art synthetic polymers, it is possible to form nanoparticles whose self-assembly behavior could be altered under orthogonal stimuli (pH and temperature). Herein, we report the synthesis of cytosine-containing nanoparticles via aqueous reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer polymerization-induced self-assembly. A poly(N-acryloylmorpholine) macromolecular chain transfer agent (mCTA) was chain-extended with cytosine acrylamide, and a morphological phase diagram was constructed. By exploiting the ability of cytosine to form dimers via hydrogen bonding, the self-assembly behavior of cytosine-containing polymers was altered when performed under acidic conditions. Under these conditions, stable nanoparticles could be formed at longer polymer chain lengths. Furthermore, the resulting nanoparticles displayed different morphologies compared to those at pH 7. Additionally, particle stability post-assembly could be controlled by varying pH and temperature. Finally, small-angle X-ray scattering was performed to probe their dynamic behavior under thermal cycling.

Access to Stereoblock Polyesters via Irreversible Chain-Transfer Ring-Opening Polymerization (ICT-ROP)

Precise control over polymer microstructure can enable the molecular tunability of material properties and represents a significant challenge in polymer chemistry. Stereoblock copolymers are some of the simplest stereosequenced polymers, yet the synthesis of stereoblock polyesters from prochiral or racemic monomers outside of "simple" isotactic stereoblocks remains limited. Herein, we report the development of irreversible chain-transfer ring-opening polymerization (ICT-ROP), which overcomes the fundamental limitations of single catalyst approaches by using transmetalation (e.g., alkoxide-chloride exchange) between two catalysts with distinct stereoselectivities as a means to embed temporally controlled multicatalysis in ROP. Our combined small-molecule model and catalytic polymerization studies lay out a clear molecular basis for ICT-ROP and are exploited to access the first examples of atactic-syndiotactic stereoblock (at-sb-st) polyesters, at-sb-st polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). We achieve high levels of control over molecular weight, tacticity, monomer composition, and block structures in a temporally controlled manner and demonstrate that stereosequence control leads to polymer tensile properties that are independent of thermal properties.

Stereospecific Radical Polymerization of a Side-Chain Transformable Bulky Acrylamide Monomer and Subsequent Post-Polymerization Modification for Syntheses of Isotactic Polyacrylate and Polyacrylamide

We report syntheses of isotactic polyacrylate and polyacrylamide via a stereospecific radical polymerization of a pendant-transformable monomer, acrylamide carrying isopropyl-substituted ureidosulfonamide (1), followed by post-polymerization modification (PPM). The study in the alcoholysis and aminolysis reactions of the model compound (2) for evaluation of the transformation ability of the electron-withdrawing pendant group on the repeating unit 1 revealed the following points: the pendant of the polymer became more reactive than that of monomer; the pendant was active enough for aminolysis reaction affording the amide compound quantitatively without additive/catalyst; the addition of a lithium triflate [Li(OTf)] and triethylamine (Et3 N) was effective as for promotion of the alcoholysis reaction. Poly(methyl acrylate) (PMA) was quantitatively obtained via the radical polymerization of 1 in the presence of Li(OTf) at 60 °C and the subsequent addition of methanol along with Et3 N. Thus-obtained PMA showed higher isotacticity [m=74 %] than that directly obtained via radical polymerization of methyl acrylate (MA) (m=51 %). The isotacticity was further increased as the temperature and monomer concentration were lower, and eventually m was increased up to 93 %. The aminolysis PPM after the iso-specific radical polymerization of 1 gave various isotactic polyacrylamides carrying different alkyl pendant groups, including poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM).

Modulating Morphologies and Surface Properties of Nanoparticles from Cellulose-Grafted Bottlebrush Copolymers Using Complementary Hydrogen-Bonding between Nucleobases

Herein we report the synthesis of a cellulose-grafted bottlebrush copolymer with nucleobases as hydrophobic moieties. Well-defined spherical micelles from this bottlebrush copolymer were fabricated via a solvent switch method. A morphological transition from spheres to worms was only observed to occur when a diblock copolymer with a complementary nucleobase functionality was introduced. Hydrophobic interaction is not capable of triggering the morphological transformation, and the diblock copolymer with the heterogeneous acrylamide nucleobase monomer can induce the morphological transition at higher A:T molar ratios, which might be caused by the weak H-bonding interaction. This supramolecular "grafting to" method enables the preparation of a series of nanoparticles with similar shapes and dimensions but distinct surface properties such as zeta potentials. Moreover, reversible morphological transitions between worm-like micelles and spheres can be achieved using a reversible collapsing and swelling of a thermoresponsive polymer. This work highlights that a supramolecular "grafting to" approach between complementary nucleobases can be utilized to tune morphologies and surface properties of nanoparticles.

Spindle-like and telophase-like self-assemblies mediated by complementary nucleobase molecular recognition

Supramolecular nanoparticles based on complementary nucleobase interactions have aroused wide interest.

Reversibly Manipulating the Surface Chemistry of Polymeric Nanostructures via a "Grafting To" Approach Mediated by Nucleobase Interactions

"Grafting to" polymeric nanostructures or surfaces is a simple and versatile approach to achieve functionalization. Herein, we describe the formation of mixed polymer-grafted nanoparticles through a supramolecular "grafting to" method that exploits multiple hydrogen-bonding interactions between the thymine (T)-containing cores of preformed micelles and the complementary nucleobase adenine (A) of added diblock copolymers. To demonstrate this new "grafting to" approach, mixed-corona polymeric nanoparticles with different sizes were prepared by the addition of a series of complementary diblock copolymers containing thermoresponsive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) to a preformed micelle with a different coronal forming block, poly(4-acryloylmorpholine) (PNAM). PNIPAM chains were distributed throughout the corona and facilitated a fast and fully reversible size change of the resulting mixed-corona micelles upon heating. Through the introduction of an environmentally sensitive fluorophore, the reversible changes in nanoparticle size and coronal composition could be easily probed. Furthermore, preparation of mixed-corona micelles also enabled ligands, such as d-mannose, to be concealed and displayed on the micelle surface. This supramolecular "grafting to" approach provides a straightforward route to fabricate highly functionalized mixed polymeric nanostructures or surfaces with potential applications in targeted diagnosis or therapy and responsive surfaces.

Micellar nanoparticles with tuneable morphologies through interactions between nucleobase-containing synthetic polymers in aqueous solution

Herein, we report the preparation of nucleobase-containing synthetic amphiphilic diblock copolymers using RAFT polymerization.

Nucleobase-functionalized ABC triblock copolymers: self-assembly of supramolecular architectures

RAFT polymerization afforded acrylic ABC triblock copolymers with self-complementary nucleobase-functionalized external blocks and a low-Tg soft central block. ABC triblock copolymers self-assembled into well-defined lamellar microphase-separated morphologies for potential applications as thermoplastic elastomers. Complementary hydrogen bonding within the hard phase facilitated self-assembly and enhanced mechanical performance.

Exploiting nucleobase-containing materials – from monomers to complex morphologies using RAFT dispersion polymerization

The synthesis of nucleobase-containing polymers was successfully performed by RAFT dispersion polymerization in both chloroform and 1,4-dioxane and self-assembly was induced by the polymerizations.

RAFT dispersion polymerization: a method to tune the morphology of thymine-containing self-assemblies

The synthesis and self-assembly of thymine-containing polymers were performed using RAFT dispersion polymerization.

Nucleobase-functionalized acrylic ABA triblock copolymers and supramolecular blends

The supramolecular blend of complementary nucleobase-functionalized ABA triblock copolymers self-assemble into a microphase-separated morphology with enhanced mechanical performance and thermal responsiveness.

Effect of Complementary Nucleobase Interactions on the Copolymer Composition of RAFT Copolymerizations

Methacryloyl-type monomers containing adenine and thymine have been successfully synthesized with good yields. The homopolymerization and copolymerization of these two new functional monomers were carried out using RAFT polymerization. The reactivity ratios of monomer pairs were measured and calculated using a nonlinear least-squares (NLLS) method, and the results confirmed that the monomer reactivities were dependent on the solvent used for polymerization. The presence and absence of hydrogen bonding affected the resultant copolymer composition where moderate alternating copolymers had a tendency to be formed in CHCl₃, while in DMF, statistical copolymers were formed. Furthermore, the glass transition temperatures of the copolymers were investigated, and the self-assembly of block copolymers made in solvents with different polarity were studied.

Living Radical Polymerization by the RAFT Process – A Third Update

This paper provides a third update to the review of reversible deactivation radical polymerization (RDRP) achieved with thiocarbonylthio compounds (ZC(=S)SR) by a mechanism of reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) that was published in June 2005 (Aust. J. Chem. 2005, 58, 379). The first update was published in November 2006 (Aust. J. Chem. 2006, 59, 669) and the second in December 2009 (Aust. J. Chem. 2009, 62, 1402). This review cites over 700 publications that appeared during the period mid 2009 to early 2012 covering various aspects of RAFT polymerization which include reagent synthesis and properties, kinetics and mechanism of polymerization, novel polymer syntheses, and a diverse range of applications. This period has witnessed further significant developments, particularly in the areas of novel RAFT agents, techniques for end-group transformation, the production of micro/nanoparticles and modified surfaces, and biopolymer conjugates both for therapeutic and diagnostic applications.