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Guo B, Zhang J, Zhang W, Chen F, Liu B. Gut microbiota-derived short chain fatty acids act as mediators of the gut-brain axis targeting age-related neurodegenerative disorders: a narrative review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2023:1-22. [PMID: 37897083 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2023.2272769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases associated with aging are often accompanied by cognitive decline and gut microbiota disorder. But the impact of gut microbiota on these cognitive disturbances remains incompletely understood. Short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are major metabolites produced by gut microbiota during the digestion of dietary fiber, serving as an energy source for gut epithelial cells and/or circulating to other organs, such as the liver and brain, through the bloodstream. SCFAs have been shown to cross the blood-brain barrier and played crucial roles in brain metabolism, with potential implications in mediating Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the underlying mechanisms that SCFAs might influence psychological functioning, including affective and cognitive processes and their neural basis, have not been fully elucidated. Furthermore, the dietary sources which determine these SCFAs production was not thoroughly evaluated yet. This comprehensive review explores the production of SCFAs by gut microbiota, their transportation through the gut-brain axis, and the potential mechanisms by which they influence age-related neurodegenerative disorders. Also, the review discusses the importance of dietary fiber sources and the challenges associated with harnessing dietary-derived SCFAs as promoters of neurological health in elderly individuals. Overall, this study suggests that gut microbiota-derived SCFAs and/or dietary fibers hold promise as potential targets and strategies for addressing age-related neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingbing Guo
- Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Jingyi Zhang
- Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Weihao Zhang
- Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Feng Chen
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Health, Institute for Innovative Development of Food Industry, Department of Food Science and Engineering, College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Marine Microbiome Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Bin Liu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Health, Institute for Innovative Development of Food Industry, Department of Food Science and Engineering, College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Marine Microbiome Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
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2
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Zhang M, Zuo Z, Zhang X, Wang L. Food biopolymer behaviors in the digestive tract: implications for nutrient delivery. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2023; 64:8709-8727. [PMID: 37216487 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2023.2202778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Biopolymers are prevalent in both natural and processed foods, serving as thickeners, emulsifiers, and stabilizers. Although specific biopolymers are known to affect digestion, the mechanisms behind their influence on the nutrient absorption and bioavailability in processed foods are not yet fully understood. The aim of this review is to elucidate the complex interplay between biopolymers and their behavior in vivo, and to provide insights into the possible physiological consequences of their consumption. The colloidization process of biopolymer in various phases of digestion was analyzed and its impact on nutrition absorption and gastrointestinal tract was summarized. Furthermore, the review discusses the methodologies used to assess colloidization and emphasizes the need for more realistic models to overcome challenges in practical applications. By controlling macronutrient bioavailability using biopolymers, it is possible to enhance health benefits, such as improving gut health, aiding in weight management, and regulating blood sugar levels. The physiological effect of extracted biopolymers utilized in modern food structuring technology cannot be predicted solely based on their inherent functionality. It is essential to account for factors such as their initial consuming state and interactions with other food components to better understand the potential health benefits of biopolymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Zhang
- National Engineering Research Center of Cereal Fermentation and Food Biomanufacturing, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Zhongyu Zuo
- National Engineering Research Center of Cereal Fermentation and Food Biomanufacturing, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Xinxia Zhang
- National Engineering Research Center of Cereal Fermentation and Food Biomanufacturing, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Li Wang
- National Engineering Research Center of Cereal Fermentation and Food Biomanufacturing, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology Ministry of Education, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- Jiangsu Provincial Engineering Research Center for Bioactive Product Processing, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
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3
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Tamargo A, de Llano DG, Cueva C, Del Hierro JN, Martin D, Molinero N, Bartolomé B, Victoria Moreno-Arribas M. Deciphering the interactions between lipids and red wine polyphenols through the gastrointestinal tract. Food Res Int 2023; 165:112524. [PMID: 36869526 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2023.112524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2022] [Revised: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
This paper investigates the mutual interactions between lipids and red wine polyphenols at different stages of the gastrointestinal tract by using the simgi® dynamic simulator. Three food models were tested: a Wine model, a Lipid model (olive oil + cholesterol) and a Wine + Lipid model (red wine + olive oil + cholesterol). With regard to wine polyphenols, results showed that co-digestion with lipids slightly affected the phenolic profile after gastrointestinal digestion. In relation to lipid bioaccessibility, the co-digestion with red wine tended to increase the percentage of bioaccessible monoglycerides, although significant differences were not found (p > 0.05). Furthermore, co-digestion with red wine tended to reduce cholesterol bioaccessibility (from 80 to 49 %), which could be related to the decrease in bile salt content observed in the micellar phase. For free fatty acids, almost no changes were observed. At the colonic level, the co-digestion of red wine and lipids conditioned the composition and metabolism of colonic microbiota. For instance, the growth [log (ufc/mL)] of lactic acid bacteria (6.9 ± 0.2) and bifidobacteria (6.8 ± 0.1) populations were significantly higher for the Wine + Lipid food model respect to the control colonic fermentation (5.2 ± 0.1 and 5.3 ± 0.2, respectively). Besides, the production of total SCFAs was greater for the Wine + Lipid food model. Also, the cytotoxicity of the colonic-digested samples towards human colon adenocarcinoma cells (HCT-116 and HT-29) was found to be significantly lower for the Wine and Wine + Lipid models than for the Lipid model and the control (no food addition). Overall, the results obtained using the simgi® model were consistent with those reported in vivo in the literature. In particular, they suggest that red wine may favourably modulate lipid bioaccessibility - a fact that could explain the hypocholesterolemic effects of red wine and red wine polyphenols observed in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alba Tamargo
- Institute of Food Science Research, CIAL, CSIC-UAM, C/Nicolas Cabrera 9, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Carolina Cueva
- Institute of Food Science Research, CIAL, CSIC-UAM, C/Nicolas Cabrera 9, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Diana Martin
- Institute of Food Science Research, CIAL, CSIC-UAM, C/Nicolas Cabrera 9, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Natalia Molinero
- Institute of Food Science Research, CIAL, CSIC-UAM, C/Nicolas Cabrera 9, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Begoña Bartolomé
- Institute of Food Science Research, CIAL, CSIC-UAM, C/Nicolas Cabrera 9, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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4
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Wang S, Godschalk R, Spooren C, de Graaf M, Jonkers D, van Schooten FJ. The role of diet in genotoxicity of fecal water derived from IBD patients and healthy controls. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 168:113393. [PMID: 36049593 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.113393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Certain dietary factors with anti-inflammatory and/or anti-cancer properties would be a promising preventive strategy for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients against developing colitis-associated colorectal cancer (CAC). In this study, fecal water (FW) was obtained from 80 IBD patients and 20 healthy controls (HCs). The comet assay was applied to determine the DNA damage induced by FW, and the protective potential of FW against hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) induced DNA damage in Caco-2 cells. Information on diet was obtained via food frequency questionnaires. The results showed that FW from IBD patients, especially patients with flares, induced higher levels of direct DNA damage in Caco-2 cells and showed less protection against H2O2-induced DNA damage, when compared to HCs. The DNA damage induced by FW was positively associated with consumption of processed meat and sugary foods, and nutrient intakes including heme iron and added sugars, whereas negatively correlated to intakes of soy products, and a dietary pattern characterized by high consumption of potatoes, white meat, nuts and seeds, eggs, legumes and soy products. FW from subjects with high coffee consumption protected against H2O2-induced DNA damage. These results can help to develop potential preventive strategies for IBD patients to reduce the CAC risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Roger Godschalk
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Corinne Spooren
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands; Division of Gastroenterology-Hepatology, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Marlijne de Graaf
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands; Division of Gastroenterology-Hepatology, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Daisy Jonkers
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands; Division of Gastroenterology-Hepatology, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Frederik-Jan van Schooten
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands.
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Vinelli V, Biscotti P, Martini D, Del Bo’ C, Marino M, Meroño T, Nikoloudaki O, Calabrese FM, Turroni S, Taverniti V, Unión Caballero A, Andrés-Lacueva C, Porrini M, Gobbetti M, De Angelis M, Brigidi P, Pinart M, Nimptsch K, Guglielmetti S, Riso P. Effects of Dietary Fibers on Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Gut Microbiota Composition in Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14132559. [PMID: 35807739 PMCID: PMC9268559 DOI: 10.3390/nu14132559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
There is an increasing interest in investigating dietary strategies able to modulate the gut microbial ecosystem which, in turn, may play a key role in human health. Dietary fibers (DFs) are widely recognized as molecules with prebiotic effects. The main objective of this systematic review was to: (i) analyze the results available on the impact of DF intervention on short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) production; (ii) evaluate the interplay between the type of DF intervention, the gut microbiota composition and its metabolic activities, and any other health associated outcome evaluated in the host. To this aim, initially, a comprehensive database of literature on human intervention studies assessing the effect of confirmed and candidate prebiotics on the microbial ecosystem was developed. Subsequently, studies performed on DFs and analyzing at least the impact on SCFA levels were extracted from the database. A total of 44 studies from 42 manuscripts were selected for the analysis. Among the different types of fiber, inulin was the DF investigated the most (n = 11). Regarding the results obtained on the ability of fiber to modulate total SCFAs, seven studies reported a significant increase, while no significant changes were reported in five studies, depending on the analytical methodology used. A total of 26 studies did not show significant differences in individual SCFAs, while the others reported significant differences for one or more SCFAs. The effect of DF interventions on the SCFA profile seemed to be strictly dependent on the dose and the type and structure of DFs. Overall, these results underline that, although affecting microbiota composition and derived metabolites, DFs do not produce univocal significant increase in SCFA levels in apparently healthy adults. In this regard, several factors (i.e., related to the study protocols and analytical methods) have been identified that could have affected the results obtained in the studies evaluated. Future studies are needed to better elucidate the relationship between DFs and gut microbiota in terms of SCFA production and impact on health-related markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Vinelli
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS), Università Degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (V.V.); (P.B.); (D.M.); (C.D.B.); (M.M.); (V.T.); (M.P.); (S.G.)
| | - Paola Biscotti
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS), Università Degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (V.V.); (P.B.); (D.M.); (C.D.B.); (M.M.); (V.T.); (M.P.); (S.G.)
| | - Daniela Martini
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS), Università Degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (V.V.); (P.B.); (D.M.); (C.D.B.); (M.M.); (V.T.); (M.P.); (S.G.)
| | - Cristian Del Bo’
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS), Università Degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (V.V.); (P.B.); (D.M.); (C.D.B.); (M.M.); (V.T.); (M.P.); (S.G.)
| | - Mirko Marino
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS), Università Degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (V.V.); (P.B.); (D.M.); (C.D.B.); (M.M.); (V.T.); (M.P.); (S.G.)
| | - Tomás Meroño
- Biomarkers and Nutrimetabolomics Laboratory, Department of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Gastronomy, Food Innovation Net (XIA), Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute (INSA), Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (T.M.); (A.U.C.); (C.A.-L.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Olga Nikoloudaki
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Free University of Bozen, 39100 Bolzano, Italy; (O.N.); (M.G.)
| | - Francesco Maria Calabrese
- Department of Soil Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70126 Bari, Italy; (F.M.C.); (M.D.A.)
| | - Silvia Turroni
- Unit of Microbiome Science and Biotechnology, Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy;
| | - Valentina Taverniti
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS), Università Degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (V.V.); (P.B.); (D.M.); (C.D.B.); (M.M.); (V.T.); (M.P.); (S.G.)
| | - Andrea Unión Caballero
- Biomarkers and Nutrimetabolomics Laboratory, Department of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Gastronomy, Food Innovation Net (XIA), Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute (INSA), Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (T.M.); (A.U.C.); (C.A.-L.)
| | - Cristina Andrés-Lacueva
- Biomarkers and Nutrimetabolomics Laboratory, Department of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Gastronomy, Food Innovation Net (XIA), Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute (INSA), Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (T.M.); (A.U.C.); (C.A.-L.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Marisa Porrini
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS), Università Degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (V.V.); (P.B.); (D.M.); (C.D.B.); (M.M.); (V.T.); (M.P.); (S.G.)
| | - Marco Gobbetti
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Free University of Bozen, 39100 Bolzano, Italy; (O.N.); (M.G.)
| | - Maria De Angelis
- Department of Soil Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70126 Bari, Italy; (F.M.C.); (M.D.A.)
| | - Patrizia Brigidi
- Microbiomics Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy;
| | - Mariona Pinart
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), 13125 Berlin, Germany; (M.P.); (K.N.)
| | - Katharina Nimptsch
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), 13125 Berlin, Germany; (M.P.); (K.N.)
| | - Simone Guglielmetti
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS), Università Degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (V.V.); (P.B.); (D.M.); (C.D.B.); (M.M.); (V.T.); (M.P.); (S.G.)
| | - Patrizia Riso
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS), Università Degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (V.V.); (P.B.); (D.M.); (C.D.B.); (M.M.); (V.T.); (M.P.); (S.G.)
- Correspondence:
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Zhang B, Zhong Y, Dong D, Zheng Z, Hu J. Gut microbial utilization of xylan and its implication in gut homeostasis and metabolic response. Carbohydr Polym 2022; 286:119271. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Dietary Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) Beneficially Alters Fatty Acid Profiles in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Rat. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12094606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Type 1 Diabetes (T1D) onset has been associated with diet, among other environmental factors. Adipose tissue and the gut have an impact on β-cell biology, influencing their function. Dietary ingredients affect fatty acid profiles of visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and plasma, as well as SCFAs production after microbial fermentation. Pistachios are a rich source of oleic acid, known for their anti-inflammatory actions and favorably affect gut microbiota composition. The purpose of the study was to examine plasma and VAT fatty acids profiles as well as fecal SCFAs after dietary intervention with pistachio nuts in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Plasma and VAT fatty acids were determined by GC-MS and SCFAs by HPLC. After 4 weeks of pistachio consumption, MUFA and especially oleic acid were increased in plasma and VAT of diabetic rats while PUFA, total ω6 and especially 18:2ω6, were decreased. Lactic acid, the major end-product of beneficial intestinal microorganisms, such as lactobacilli, was elevated in healthy groups, while decreased levels of isovaleric acid were recorded in healthy and diabetic groups following the pistachio diet. Our results reveal possible beneficial relationships between pistachio nut consumption, lipid profiles and intestinal health in the disease state of T1D.
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Hughes RL, Alvarado DA, Swanson KS, Holscher HD. The Prebiotic Potential of Inulin-type Fructans: A Systematic Review. Adv Nutr 2021; 13:S2161-8313(22)00074-6. [PMID: 34555168 PMCID: PMC8970830 DOI: 10.1093/advances/nmab119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Inulin-type fructans (ITF), including short-chain fructooligosaccharides (scFOS), oligofructose, and inulin, are commonly used fibers that are widely regarded as prebiotic for their ability to be selectively utilized by the intestinal microbiota to confer a health benefit. However, the literature thus far lacks a thorough discussion of the evidence from human clinical trials for the prebiotic effect of ITF, including both effects on the intestinal microbiota composition as well as the intestinal and extraintestinal (e.g., glucose homeostasis, lipids, mineral absorption and bone health, appetite and satiety, inflammation and immune function, and body composition) benefits. Additionally, there is a lack of discussion regarding aspects such as the effect of ITF chain length on its intestinal and extraintestinal effects. The overall objective of this systematic review was to summarize the prebiotic potential of ITF based on the results of human clinical trials in healthy adult populations. Evidence from studies included in the current review suggest that ITF have a prebiotic effect on the intestinal microbiota, promoting the abundances of Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii. Beneficial health effects reported following ITF intake include improved intestinal barrier function, improved laxation, increased insulin sensitivity, decreased triglycerides and an improved lipid profile, increased absorption of calcium and magnesium, and increased satiety. While there is some evidence for differing effects of ITF based on chain length, lack of direct comparisons and detailed descriptions of physicochemical properties limit the ability to draw conclusions from human clinical studies. Future research should focus on elucidating the mechanisms by which the intestinal microbiota mediates or modifies the effects of ITF on human health and the contribution of individual factors such as age and metabolic health to move towards personalization of prebiotic application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riley L Hughes
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - David A Alvarado
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
| | | | - Hannah D Holscher
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA,Division of Nutrition Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
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Al Kassaa I, El Omari S, Abbas N, Papon N, Drider D, Kassem II, Osman M. High association of COVID-19 severity with poor gut health score in Lebanese patients. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0258913. [PMID: 34673813 PMCID: PMC8530309 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0258913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has affected millions of lives globally. However, the disease has presented more extreme challenges for developing countries that are experiencing economic crises. Studies on COVID-19 symptoms and gut health are scarce and have not fully analyzed possible associations between gut health and disease pathophysiology. Therefore, this study aimed to demonstrate a potential association between gut health and COVID-19 severity in the Lebanese community, which has been experiencing a severe economic crisis. Methods This cross-sectional study investigated SARS-CoV-2 PCR-positive Lebanese patients. Participants were interviewed and gut health, COVID-19 symptoms, and different metrics were analyzed using simple and multiple logistic regression models. Results Analysis of the data showed that 25% of participants were asymptomatic, while an equal proportion experienced severe symptoms, including dyspnea (22.7%), oxygen need (7.5%), and hospitalization (3.1%). The mean age of the participants was 38.3 ±0.8 years, and the majority were males (63.9%), married (68.2%), and currently employed (66.7%). A negative correlation was found between gut health score and COVID-19 symptoms (Kendall’s tau-b = -0.153, P = 0.004); indicating that low gut health was associated with more severe COVID-19 cases. Additionally, participants who reported unhealthy food intake were more likely to experience severe symptoms (Kendall’s tau-b = 0.118, P = 0.049). When all items were taken into consideration, multiple ordinal logistic regression models showed a significant association between COVID-19 symptoms and each of the following variables: working status, flu-like illness episodes, and gut health score. COVID-19 severe symptoms were more common among patients having poor gut health scores (OR:1.31, 95%CI:1.07–1.61; P = 0.008), experiencing more than one episode of flu-like illness per year (OR:2.85, 95%CI:1.58–5.15; P = 0.001), and owning a job (OR:2.00, 95%CI:1.1–3.65; P = 0.023). Conclusions To our knowledge, this is the first study that showed the impact of gut health and exposure to respiratory viruses on COVID-19 severity in Lebanon. These findings can facilitate combating the pandemic in Lebanon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imad Al Kassaa
- Faculty of Public Health, Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon
- Doctoral School of Science and Technology, Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon
- * E-mail: (IAK); , (MO)
| | - Sarah El Omari
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Nada Abbas
- Department of Health Management and Policy, Faculty of Health Sciences, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Nicolas Papon
- Univ Angers, Univ Brest, GEIHP, SFR ICAT, Angers, France
| | - Djamel Drider
- UMR Transfrontalière BioEcoAgro1158, Univ. Lille, INRAE, Univ. Liège, UPJV, YNCREA, Univ. Artois, Univ. Littoral Côte d’Opale, ICV—Institut Charles Viollette, Lille, France
| | - Issmat I. Kassem
- Center for Food Safety and Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Georgia, Griffin, GA, United States of America
| | - Marwan Osman
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States of America
- * E-mail: (IAK); , (MO)
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10
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Blachier F, Andriamihaja M. Effects of the L-tyrosine-derived bacterial metabolite p-cresol on colonic and peripheral cells. Amino Acids 2021; 54:325-338. [PMID: 34468872 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-021-03064-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Specific families of bacteria present within the intestinal luminal content produce p-cresol from L-tyrosine. Although the hosts do not synthesize p-cresol, they can metabolize this compound within their colonic mucosa and liver leading to the production of co-metabolites including p-cresyl sulfate (p-CS) and p-cresyl glucuronide (p-CG). p-Cresol and its co-metabolites are recovered in the circulation mainly conjugated to albumin, but also in their free forms that are excreted in the urine. An increased dietary protein intake raises the amount of p-cresol recovered in the feces and urine, while fecal excretion of p-cresol is diminished by a diet containing undigestible polysaccharides. p-Cresol in excess is genotoxic for colonocytes. In addition, in these cells, this bacterial metabolite decreases mitochondrial oxygen consumption, while increasing the anion superoxide production. In chronic kidney disease (CKD), marked accumulation of p-cresol and p-CS in plasma is measured, and in renal tubular cells, p-cresol and p-CS increase oxidative stress, affect mitochondrial function, and lead to cell death, strongly suggesting that these 2 compounds act as uremic toxins that aggravate CKD progression. p-Cresol and p-CS are also suspected to play a role in the CKD-associated adverse cardiovascular events, since they affect endothelial cell proliferation and migration, decrease the capacity of endothelial wound repair, and increase the senescence of endothelial cells. Finally, the fact that concentration of p-cresol is transiently increased in young autistic children biological fluids, and that intraperitoneal injection of p-cresol in animal models induces some behavioral characteristics observed in the autism spectrum disorders (ASD), raise the view that p-cresol may possibly represent one of the components involved in ASD etiology. Further pre-clinical and clinical studies are obviously needed to determine if the lowering of p-cresol and/or p-CS circulating concentrations, by dietary and/or pharmacological means, would allow, by itself or in combination with other interventions, to improve CKD progression and associated cardiovascular outcomes, as well as some neurological outcomes in children with an early diagnosis of autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Blachier
- Université Paris-Saclay, AgroParisTech, INRAE, UMR PNCA, Paris, France.
| | - M Andriamihaja
- Université Paris-Saclay, AgroParisTech, INRAE, UMR PNCA, Paris, France
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Zorraquín-Peña I, González de Llano D, Tamargo A, Moreno-Arribas MV, Bartolomé B. Moderate Wine Consumption Reduces Faecal Water Cytotoxicity in Healthy Volunteers. Nutrients 2020; 12:nu12092716. [PMID: 32899492 PMCID: PMC7551400 DOI: 10.3390/nu12092716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
There are some studies that suggest that moderate consumption of wine, as part of a healthy and balanced diet, has a favourable effect on intestinal health. This study evaluates the effect of moderate wine consumption on faecal water (FW) cytotoxicity as a parameter of gut health. To that end, faecal samples before and after a red wine intervention study (250 mL of wine/day, 4 weeks) in healthy volunteers (n = 8) and in a parallel control group (n = 3) were collected and assayed for in vitro FW cytotoxicity. Two reference compounds, phenol and p-cresol, were used for assessing the cytotoxicity assays using two colon epithelial cell lines (HT-29 and HCT 116) and different assay conditions (FW dilution and incubation time). For the two cell lines and all assay conditions, the means of percentage cell viability were higher (lower cytotoxicity) for samples collected after the red wine intervention than for those collected before, although significant (p < 0.05) differences were only found in certain assay conditions for both cell lines. Significant positive correlations between the percentage cell viability and the contents of some faecal metabolites (short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) and phenolic acids (PA)) were found for the more resistant cell line (HCT 116), suggesting that the reduction in FW cytotoxicity observed after moderate red wine consumption was related to the production of microbial-derived metabolites such as SCFA and PA, whose faecal contents have been shown to increase after wine consumption. FW cytotoxicity can be deemed as a holistic biomarker that involves diet, gut microbiota and host.
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12
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McBurney MI, Davis C, Fraser CM, Schneeman BO, Huttenhower C, Verbeke K, Walter J, Latulippe ME. Establishing What Constitutes a Healthy Human Gut Microbiome: State of the Science, Regulatory Considerations, and Future Directions. J Nutr 2019; 149:1882-1895. [PMID: 31373365 PMCID: PMC6825832 DOI: 10.1093/jn/nxz154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
On December 17, 2018, the North American branch of the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI North America) convened a workshop "Can We Begin to Define a Healthy Gut Microbiome Through Quantifiable Characteristics?" with >40 invited academic, government, and industry experts in Washington, DC. The workshop objectives were to 1) develop a collective expert assessment of the state of the evidence on the human gut microbiome and associated human health benefits, 2) see if there was sufficient evidence to establish measurable gut microbiome characteristics that could serve as indicators of "health," 3) identify short- and long-term research needs to fully characterize healthy gut microbiome-host relationships, and 4) publish the findings. Conclusions were as follows: 1) mechanistic links of specific changes in gut microbiome structure with function or markers of human health are not yet established; 2) it is not established if dysbiosis is a cause, consequence, or both of changes in human gut epithelial function and disease; 3) microbiome communities are highly individualized, show a high degree of interindividual variation to perturbation, and tend to be stable over years; 4) the complexity of microbiome-host interactions requires a comprehensive, multidisciplinary research agenda to elucidate relationships between gut microbiome and host health; 5) biomarkers and/or surrogate indicators of host function and pathogenic processes based on the microbiome need to be determined and validated, along with normal ranges, using approaches similar to those used to establish biomarkers and/or surrogate indicators based on host metabolic phenotypes; 6) future studies measuring responses to an exposure or intervention need to combine validated microbiome-related biomarkers and/or surrogate indicators with multiomics characterization of the microbiome; and 7) because static genetic sampling misses important short- and long-term microbiome-related dynamic changes to host health, future studies must be powered to account for inter- and intraindividual variation and should use repeated measures within individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael I McBurney
- Human Health & Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | | | - Claire M Fraser
- Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | | | | | - Kristin Verbeke
- Chronic Diseases, Metabolism & Ageing, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jens Walter
- Agricultural, Food, & Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Marie E Latulippe
- The International Life Sciences Institute, North American Branch, Washington, DC
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13
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Delzenne NM, Olivares M, Neyrinck AM, Beaumont M, Kjølbæk L, Larsen TM, Benítez-Páez A, Romaní-Pérez M, Garcia-Campayo V, Bosscher D, Sanz Y, van der Kamp JW. Nutritional interest of dietary fiber and prebiotics in obesity: Lessons from the MyNewGut consortium. Clin Nutr 2019; 39:414-424. [PMID: 30904186 DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2019.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Revised: 02/24/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The aim of EU project MyNewGut is to contribute to future public health-related recommendations supported by new insight in gut microbiome and nutrition-host relationship. In this Opinion Paper, we first revisit the concept of dietary fiber, taking into account their interaction with the gut microbiota. This paper also summarizes the main effects of dietary fibers with prebiotic properties in intervention studies in humans, with a particular emphasis on the effects of arabinoxylans and arabinoxylo-oligosaccharides on metabolic alterations associated with obesity. Based on the existing state of the art and future development, we elaborate the steps required to propose dietary guidelines related to dietary fibers, taking into account their interaction with the gut microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie M Delzenne
- Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Marta Olivares
- Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Audrey M Neyrinck
- Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Martin Beaumont
- Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Louise Kjølbæk
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Rolighedsvej 30, 1958, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Thomas Meinert Larsen
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Rolighedsvej 30, 1958, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Alfonso Benítez-Páez
- Microbial Ecology, Nutrition & Health Research Unit, Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology, Spanish National Research Council (IATA-CSIC), Valencia, Spain
| | - Marina Romaní-Pérez
- Microbial Ecology, Nutrition & Health Research Unit, Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology, Spanish National Research Council (IATA-CSIC), Valencia, Spain
| | | | | | - Yolanda Sanz
- Microbial Ecology, Nutrition & Health Research Unit, Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology, Spanish National Research Council (IATA-CSIC), Valencia, Spain
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Xu J, Zhang QF, Zheng J, Yuan BF, Feng YQ. Mass spectrometry-based fecal metabolome analysis. Trends Analyt Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2018.12.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Mundi M, Mikal KM, Ahmed OH, Sarbini SR. A review on the effects of prebiotics on cell toxicity and integrity. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/10942912.2017.1326937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Morven Mundi
- Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Campus, Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Kathleen Michelle Mikal
- Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Campus, Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Osumanu Haruna Ahmed
- Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Campus, Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Shahrul Razid Sarbini
- Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Campus, Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia
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Rojo D, Méndez-García C, Raczkowska BA, Bargiela R, Moya A, Ferrer M, Barbas C. Exploring the human microbiome from multiple perspectives: factors altering its composition and function. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2017; 41:453-478. [PMID: 28333226 PMCID: PMC5812509 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuw046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Our microbiota presents peculiarities and characteristics that may be altered by multiple factors. The degree and consequences of these alterations depend on the nature, strength and duration of the perturbations as well as the structure and stability of each microbiota. The aim of this review is to sketch a very broad picture of the factors commonly influencing different body sites, and which have been associated with alterations in the human microbiota in terms of composition and function. To do so, first, a graphical representation of bacterial, fungal and archaeal genera reveals possible associations among genera affected by different factors. Then, the revision of sequence-based predictions provides associations with functions that become part of the active metabolism. Finally, examination of microbial metabolite contents and fluxes reveals whether metabolic alterations are a reflection of the differences observed at the level of population structure, and in the last step, link microorganisms to functions under perturbations that differ in nature and aetiology. The utilisation of complementary technologies and methods, with a special focus on metabolomics research, is thoroughly discussed to obtain a global picture of microbiota composition and microbiome function and to convey the urgent need for the standardisation of protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Rojo
- Centro de Metabolómica y Bioanálisis (CEMBIO), Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad CEU San Pablo, Campus Montepríncipe, 28668 Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Beata Anna Raczkowska
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Internal Medicine, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Rafael Bargiela
- Institute of Catalysis, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Andrés Moya
- Foundation for the Promotion of Health and Biomedical Research in the Valencian Community Public Health (FISABIO), 46020 Valencia, Spain
- Network Research Center for Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBER-ESP), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Universidad de Valencia, Paterna, 46980 Valencia, Spain
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Manuel Ferrer
- Institute of Catalysis, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), 28049 Madrid, Spain
- Corresponding author: Institute of Catalysis, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), 28049 Madrid, Spain. Tel: (+34) 915854872; E-mail:
| | - Coral Barbas
- Centro de Metabolómica y Bioanálisis (CEMBIO), Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad CEU San Pablo, Campus Montepríncipe, 28668 Madrid, Spain
- These authors contributed equally to this work
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Nersesyan A, Hoelzl C, Ferk F, Mišík M, Al-Serori H, Setayesh T, Knasmueller S. Use of Single-cell Gel Electrophoresis Assays in Dietary Intervention Trials. THE COMET ASSAY IN TOXICOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/9781782622895-00314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The single-cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE) technique has been frequently used to investigate the impact of consumption of complex foods and individual constituents on DNA stability in humans. Since no division or cultivation of the indicator cells (in most studies lymphocytes) is required, this approach is less costly and time consuming than cytogenetic methods. Apart from single- and double-stand breaks and apurinic sites, which can be detected under standard conditions, it is also possible to assess the formation of oxidized DNA bases and alterations of DNA repair as well as protection of the DNA against chemical carcinogens. In total, 93 studies have been published since the first use of the Comet assay in this field in 1997. The results which emerged from these studies show that human foods contain specific highly protective components (e.g. gallic acid, xanthohumol, isoflavones); promising results were also obtained with beverages (coffee and other drinks), while mixed diets with vegetables and fruits conferred no or moderate protection; however, individual plant foods (e.g. kiwis and specific cruciferous vegetables) were highly protective. It is notable that prevention of DNA damage was rarely detected under standard conditions while evidence for reduced formation of oxidized DNA bases was found in approximately 30% of the trials. In some investigations it was possible to identify the modes of action by which specific compounds prevented damage of the genetic material in additional mechanistic experiments. The currently available data show that SCGE assays are a valuable tool for identifying dietary factors which improve the stability of the genetic material and prevent adverse health effects which are causally related to DNA damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armen Nersesyan
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna Borschkegasse 8a 1090 Vienna Austria
| | - Christine Hoelzl
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna Borschkegasse 8a 1090 Vienna Austria
| | - Franziska Ferk
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna Borschkegasse 8a 1090 Vienna Austria
| | - Miroslav Mišík
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna Borschkegasse 8a 1090 Vienna Austria
| | - Halh Al-Serori
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna Borschkegasse 8a 1090 Vienna Austria
| | - Tahereh Setayesh
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna Borschkegasse 8a 1090 Vienna Austria
| | - Siegfried Knasmueller
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna Borschkegasse 8a 1090 Vienna Austria
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Koenen ME, Cruz Rubio JM, Mueller M, Venema K. The effect of agave fructan products on the activity and composition of the microbiota determined in a dynamic in vitro model of the human proximal large intestine. J Funct Foods 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2016.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
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Verspreet J, Damen B, Broekaert WF, Verbeke K, Delcour JA, Courtin CM. A Critical Look at Prebiotics Within the Dietary Fiber Concept. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 2016; 7:167-90. [PMID: 26735801 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-food-081315-032749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
This article reviews the current knowledge of the health effects of dietary fiber and prebiotics and establishes the position of prebiotics within the broader context of dietary fiber. Although the positive health effects of specific fibers on defecation, reduction of postprandial glycemic response, and maintenance of normal blood cholesterol levels are generally accepted, other presumed health benefits of dietary fibers are still debated. There is evidence that specific dietary fibers improve the integrity of the epithelial layer of the intestines, increase the resistance against pathogenic colonization, reduce the risk of developing colorectal cancer, increase mineral absorption, and have a positive impact on the immune system, but these effects are neither generally acknowledged nor completely understood. Many of the latter effects are thought to be particularly elicited by prebiotics. Although the prebiotic concept evolved significantly during the past two decades, the line between prebiotics and nonprebiotic dietary fiber remains vague. Nevertheless, scientific evidence demonstrating the health-promoting potential of prebiotics continues to accumulate and suggests that prebiotic fibers have their rightful place in a healthy diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joran Verspreet
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Biochemistry.,Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Center (LFoRCe).,Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems (M2S), KU Leuven, and
| | - Bram Damen
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Biochemistry.,Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Center (LFoRCe).,Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems (M2S), KU Leuven, and
| | | | - Kristin Verbeke
- Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Center (LFoRCe).,Translational Research in Gastrointestinal Disorders (TARGID), KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium;
| | - Jan A Delcour
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Biochemistry.,Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Center (LFoRCe).,Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems (M2S), KU Leuven, and
| | - Christophe M Courtin
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Biochemistry.,Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Center (LFoRCe).,Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems (M2S), KU Leuven, and
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