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Coelho M, Barosa C, Tavares L, Jones JG. Metabolic incorporation of H 218 O into specific glucose-6-phosphate oxygens by red-blood-cell lysates as observed by 13 C isotope-shifted NMR signals. NMR IN BIOMEDICINE 2020; 33:e4395. [PMID: 32789995 DOI: 10.1002/nbm.4395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Water enriched with oxygen-18 (H218 O) is a potential tracer for evaluating the sources of glucose and glycogen synthesis since it is incorporated into specific sites of glucose-6-phosphate via specific enzyme-mediated exchange/addition mechanisms. Unlike 2 H, 18 O does not experience significant isotope effects for any of these processes. Therefore, H218 O might provide more precise estimates of endogenous carbohydrate synthesis compared with deuterated water provided that positional 18 O enrichments of glucose can be measured. As a proof of concept, H218 O was incorporated into a well characterized hemolysate model of sugar phosphate metabolism and 13 C NMR was applied to quantify positional 18 O enrichment of glucose-6-phosphate oxygens. Human erythrocyte hemolysate preparations were incubated overnight at 37 °C with a buffer containing sugar phosphate precursors and 20% (n = 5) and 80% (n = 1) H218 O. Enrichment of glucose-6-phosphate was analyzed by 13 C NMR analysis of 18 O-shifted versus unshifted signals following derivatization to monoacetone glucose (MAG). 13 C NMR MAG spectra from hemolysate revealed resolved 18 O-shifted signals in Positions 1-5. Mean 18 O enrichments were 16.4 ± 1.6% (Position 1), 13.3 ± 1.3% (Position 2), 4.1 ± 1.1% (Position 3), 12.6 ± 0.8% (Position 4), 10.7 ± 1.4% (Position 5), and no detectable enrichment of Position 6. No 18 O-shifted glucose-6-phosphate signals were detected in preparations containing sugar phosphate precursors only. H218 O is incorporated into Positions 1-5 of glucose-6-phosphate in accordance with spontaneous aldose hydration and specific enzymatic reaction mechanisms. This provides a basis for its deployment as a tracer for glucose and glycogen biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarida Coelho
- Center for Neurosciences and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Cristina Barosa
- Center for Neurosciences and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ludgero Tavares
- Center for Neurosciences and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal
| | - John G Jones
- Center for Neurosciences and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal
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2
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Determining the contribution of a high-fructose corn syrup formulation to hepatic glycogen synthesis during ad-libitum feeding in mice. Sci Rep 2020; 10:12852. [PMID: 32733017 PMCID: PMC7393509 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-69820-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Excessive sugar intake including high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is implicated in the rise of obesity, insulin resistance and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Liver glycogen synthesis is influenced by both fructose and insulin signaling. Therefore, the effect of HFCS on hepatic glycogenesis was evaluated in mice feeding ad-libitum. Using deuterated water: the fraction of glycogen derived from triose-P sources, Krebs cycle substrates, and direct pathway + cycling, was measured in 9 normal-chow fed mice (NC) and 12 mice fed normal chow plus a 55% fructose/45% glucose mix in the drinking water at 30% w/v (HFCS-55). This was enriched with [U-13C]fructose or [U-13C]glucose to determine the contribution of each to glycogenesis. For NC, direct pathway + cycling, Krebs cycle, and triose-P sources accounted for 66 ± 0.7%, 23 ± 0.8% and 11 ± 0.4% of glycogen synthesis, respectively. HFCS-55 mice had similar direct pathway + cycling (64 ± 1%) but lower Krebs cycle (12 ± 1%, p < 0.001) and higher triose-P contributions (24 ± 1%, p < 0.001). HFCS-55-fructose contributed 17 ± 1% via triose-P and 2 ± 0% via Krebs cycle. HFCS-55-glucose contributed 16 ± 3% via direct pathway and 1 ± 0% via Krebs cycle. In conclusion, HFCS-55 supplementation resulted in similar hepatic glycogen deposition rates. Indirect pathway contributions shifted from Krebs cycle to Triose-P sources reflecting HFCS-55-fructose utilization, while HFCS-55-glucose was incorporated almost exclusively by the direct pathway.
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Daurio NA, Wang Y, Chen Y, Zhou H, Carballo-Jane E, Mane J, Rodriguez CG, Zafian P, Houghton A, Addona G, McLaren DG, Zhang R, Shyong BJ, Bateman K, Downes DP, Webb M, Kelley DE, Previs SF. Spatial and temporal studies of metabolic activity: contrasting biochemical kinetics in tissues and pathways during fasted and fed states. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2019; 316:E1105-E1117. [PMID: 30912961 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00459.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The regulation of nutrient homeostasis, i.e., the ability to transition between fasted and fed states, is fundamental in maintaining health. Since food is typically consumed over limited (anabolic) periods, dietary components must be processed and stored to counterbalance the catabolic stress that occurs between meals. Herein, we contrast tissue- and pathway-specific metabolic activity in fasted and fed states. We demonstrate that knowledge of biochemical kinetics that is obtained from opposite ends of the energetic spectrum can allow mechanism-based differentiation of healthy and disease phenotypes. Rat models of type 1 and type 2 diabetes serve as case studies for probing spatial and temporal patterns of metabolic activity via [2H]water labeling. Experimental designs that capture integrative whole body metabolism, including meal-induced substrate partitioning, can support an array of research surrounding metabolic disease; the relative simplicity of the approach that is discussed here should enable routine applications in preclinical models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie A Daurio
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - Yichen Wang
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - Ying Chen
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - Haihong Zhou
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - Ester Carballo-Jane
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - Joel Mane
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - Carlos G Rodriguez
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - Peter Zafian
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - Andrea Houghton
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - George Addona
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - David G McLaren
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - Rena Zhang
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - Bao Jen Shyong
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - Kevin Bateman
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - Daniel P Downes
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - Maria Webb
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - David E Kelley
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - Stephen F Previs
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Company, Incorporated, Kenilworth, New Jersey
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Rito J, Viegas I, Pardal MA, Metón I, Baanante IV, Jones JG. Disposition of a Glucose Load into Hepatic Glycogen by Direct and Indirect Pathways in Juvenile Seabass and Seabream. Sci Rep 2018; 8:464. [PMID: 29323287 PMCID: PMC5765127 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-19087-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In carnivorous fish, conversion of a glucose load to hepatic glycogen is widely used to assess their metabolic flexibility towards carbohydrate utilization, but the activities of direct and indirect pathways in this setting are unclear. We assessed the conversion of an intraperitoneal glucose load (2 g.kg-1) enriched with [U-13C6]glucose to hepatic glycogen in juvenile seabass and seabream. 13C-NMR analysis of glycogen was used to determine the contribution of the load to glycogen synthesis via direct and indirect pathways at 48-hr post-injection. For seabass, [U-13C6]glucose was accompanied by deuterated water and 2H-NMR analysis of glycogen 2H-enrichment, allowing endogenous substrate contributions to be assessed as well. For fasted seabass and seabream, 47 ± 5% and 64 ± 10% of glycogen was synthesized from the load, respectively. Direct and indirect pathways contributed equally (25 ± 3% direct, 21 ± 1% indirect for seabass; 35 ± 7% direct, 29 ± 4% indirect for seabream). In fasted seabass, integration of 2H- and 13C-NMR analysis indicated that endogenous glycerol and anaplerotic substrates contributed an additional 7 ± 2% and 7 ± 1%, respectively. In fed seabass, glucose load contributions were residual and endogenous contributions were negligible. Concluding, direct and indirect pathways contributed equally and substantially to fasting hepatic glycogen repletion from a glucose load in juvenile seabream and seabass.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Rito
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rua Larga, 1° Piso da FMUC, University of Coimbra, 3004-504, Coimbra, Portugal
- CFE - Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ivan Viegas
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rua Larga, 1° Piso da FMUC, University of Coimbra, 3004-504, Coimbra, Portugal
- CFE - Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Miguel A Pardal
- CFE - Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Isidoro Metón
- Secció de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Bioquímica i Fisiologia, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Joan XXIII 27, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Isabel V Baanante
- Secció de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Bioquímica i Fisiologia, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Joan XXIII 27, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - John G Jones
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rua Larga, 1° Piso da FMUC, University of Coimbra, 3004-504, Coimbra, Portugal.
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Soares AF, Paz-Montoya J, Lei H, Moniatte M, Gruetter R. Sexual dimorphism in hepatic lipids is associated with the evolution of metabolic status in mice. NMR IN BIOMEDICINE 2017; 30:e3761. [PMID: 28661066 DOI: 10.1002/nbm.3761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2017] [Revised: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Ectopic lipid accumulation in the liver is implicated in metabolic disease in an age- and sex-dependent manner. The role of hepatic lipids has been well established within the scope of metabolic insults in mice, but has been insufficiently characterized under standard housing conditions, where age-related metabolic alterations are known to occur. We studied a total of 10 male and 10 female mice longitudinally. At 3, 7 and 11 months of age, non-invasive 1 H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1 H-MRS) was used to monitor hepatic lipid content (HLC) and fatty acid composition in vivo, and glucose homeostasis was assessed with glucose and insulin challenges. At the end of the study, hepatic lipids were comprehensively characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometric analyses of liver tissue samples. In males, HLC increased from 1.4 ± 0.1% at 3 months to 2.9 ± 0.3% at 7 months (p < 0.01) and 2.7 ± 0.3% at 11 months (p < 0.05), in correlation with fasting insulin levels (p < 0.01, r = 0.51) and parameters from the insulin tolerance test (ITT; p < 0.001, r = -0.69 versus area under the curve; p < 0.01, r = -0.57 versus blood glucose drop at 1 h post-ITT; p < 0.01, r = 0.55 versus blood glucose at 3 h post-ITT). The metabolic performance of females remained the same throughout the study, and HLC was higher than that of males at 3 months (2.7 ± 0.2%, p < 0.01), but comparable at 7 months (2.2 ± 0.2%) and 11 months (2.2 ± 0.1%). Strong sexual dimorphism in bioactive lipid species, including diacylglycerols (higher in males, p < 0.0001), phosphatidylinositols (higher in females, p < 0.001) and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (higher in females, p < 0.01), was found to be in good correlation with metabolic scores at 11 months. Therefore, in mice housed under standard conditions, sex-specific composition of bioactive lipids is associated with metabolic protection in females, whose metabolic performance was independent of hepatic cytosolic lipid content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Francisca Soares
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Laboratory for Functional and Metabolic Imaging (LIFMET), Lausanne, VD, Switzerland
| | - Jonathan Paz-Montoya
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Proteomics Core Facility (PCF), Lausanne, VD, Switzerland
| | - Hongxia Lei
- Center for Biomedical Imaging (CIBM), Lausanne VD, Switzerland and University of Geneva, Department of Radiology, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Marc Moniatte
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Proteomics Core Facility (PCF), Lausanne, VD, Switzerland
| | - Rolf Gruetter
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Laboratory for Functional and Metabolic Imaging (LIFMET), Lausanne, VD, Switzerland
- Center for Biomedical Imaging (CIBM), Lausanne VD, Switzerland and University of Geneva, Department of Radiology, Geneva, Switzerland
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Wang SP, Satapati S, Daurio NA, Kelley DE, Previs SF. Reply to Letter to the Editor: "The art of quantifying glucose metabolism". Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2017; 313:E259-E261. [PMID: 28794100 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00121.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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7
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Wang SP, Zhou D, Yao Z, Satapati S, Chen Y, Daurio NA, Petrov A, Shen X, Metzger D, Yin W, Nawrocki AR, Eiermann GJ, Hwa J, Fancourt C, Miller C, Herath K, Roddy TP, Slipetz D, Erion MD, Previs SF, Kelley DE. Quantifying rates of glucose production in vivo following an intraperitoneal tracer bolus. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2016; 311:E911-E921. [PMID: 27651111 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00182.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2016] [Revised: 09/02/2016] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Aberrant regulation of glucose production makes a critical contribution to the impaired glycemic control that is observed in type 2 diabetes. Although isotopic tracer methods have proven to be informative in quantifying the magnitude of such alterations, it is presumed that one must rely on venous access to administer glucose tracers which therein presents obstacles for the routine application of tracer methods in rodent models. Since intraperitoneal injections are readily used to deliver glucose challenges and/or dose potential therapeutics, we hypothesized that this route could also be used to administer a glucose tracer. The ability to then reliably estimate glucose flux would require attention toward setting a schedule for collecting samples and choosing a distribution volume. For example, glucose production can be calculated by multiplying the fractional turnover rate by the pool size. We have taken a step-wise approach to examine the potential of using an intraperitoneal tracer administration in rat and mouse models. First, we compared the kinetics of [U-13C]glucose following either an intravenous or an intraperitoneal injection. Second, we tested whether the intraperitoneal method could detect a pharmacological manipulation of glucose production. Finally, we contrasted a potential application of the intraperitoneal method against the glucose-insulin clamp. We conclude that it is possible to 1) quantify glucose production using an intraperitoneal injection of tracer and 2) derive a "glucose production index" by coupling estimates of basal glucose production with measurements of fasting insulin concentration; this yields a proxy for clamp-derived assessments of insulin sensitivity of endogenous production.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dan Zhou
- Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | - Zuliang Yao
- Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | | | - Ying Chen
- Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | | | | | - Xiaolan Shen
- Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | | | - Wu Yin
- Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | | | | | - Joyce Hwa
- Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | | | - Corin Miller
- Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, New Jersey
| | | | | | | | - Mark D Erion
- Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, New Jersey
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Kowalski GM, Bruce CR. The regulation of glucose metabolism: implications and considerations for the assessment of glucose homeostasis in rodents. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2014; 307:E859-71. [PMID: 25205823 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00165.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The incidence of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes (T2D) is increasing at alarming rates. In the quest to understand the underlying causes of and to identify novel therapeutic targets to treat T2D, scientists have become increasingly reliant on the use of rodent models. Here, we provide a discussion on the regulation of rodent glucose metabolism, highlighting key differences and similarities that exist between rodents and humans. In addition, some of the issues and considerations associated with assessing glucose homeostasis and insulin action are outlined. We also discuss the role of the liver vs. skeletal muscle in regulating whole body glucose metabolism in rodents, emphasizing the importance of defective hepatic glucose metabolism in the development of impaired glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, and T2D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greg M Kowalski
- Centre for Physical Activity and Nutrition Research, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood, Victoria, Australia
| | - Clinton R Bruce
- Centre for Physical Activity and Nutrition Research, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood, Victoria, Australia
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Viegas I, Caballero-Solares A, Rito J, Giralt M, Pardal MA, Metón I, Jones JG, Baanante IV. Expressional regulation of key hepatic enzymes of intermediary metabolism in European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) during food deprivation and refeeding. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2014; 174:38-44. [PMID: 24746983 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2014.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2013] [Revised: 04/04/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
We hypothesized that the analysis of mRNA level and activity of key enzymes in amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism in a feeding/fasting/refeeding setting could improve our understanding of how a carnivorous fish, like the European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax), responds to changes in dietary intake at the hepatic level. To this end cDNA fragments encoding genes for cytosolic and mitochondrial alanine aminotransferase (cALT; mALT), pyruvate kinase (PK), glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGDH) were cloned and sequenced. Measurement of mRNA levels through quantitative real-time PCR performed in livers of fasted seabass revealed a significant increase in cALT (8.5-fold induction) while promoting a drastic 45-fold down-regulation of PK in relation to the levels found in fed seabass. These observations were corroborated by enzyme activity meaning that during food deprivation an increase in the capacity of pyruvate generation happened via alanine to offset the reduction in pyruvate derived via glycolysis. After a 3-day refeeding period cALT returned to control levels while PK was not able to rebound. No alterations were detected in the expression levels of G6PDH while 6PGDH was revealed to be more sensitive specially to fasting, as confirmed by a significant 5.7-fold decrease in mRNA levels with no recovery after refeeding. Our results indicate that in early stages of refeeding, the liver prioritized the restoration of systemic normoglycemia and replenishment of hepatic glycogen. In a later stage, once regular feeding is re-established, dietary fuel may then be channeled to glycolysis and de novo lipogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Viegas
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Largo Marquês de Pombal, 3004-517 Coimbra, Portugal; CFE - Center for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martins de Freitas 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Albert Caballero-Solares
- Departament d'Ecologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 645, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - João Rito
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Largo Marquês de Pombal, 3004-517 Coimbra, Portugal; CFE - Center for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martins de Freitas 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Marina Giralt
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Facultat de Farmàcia, Universitat de Barcelona, Av. Joan XXIII s/n, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Miguel A Pardal
- CFE - Center for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martins de Freitas 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Isidoro Metón
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Facultat de Farmàcia, Universitat de Barcelona, Av. Joan XXIII s/n, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - John G Jones
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Largo Marquês de Pombal, 3004-517 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Isabel V Baanante
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Facultat de Farmàcia, Universitat de Barcelona, Av. Joan XXIII s/n, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
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