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Song W, Yang H, Liu S, Yu H, Li D, Li P, Xing R. Melanin: insights into structure, analysis, and biological activities for future development. J Mater Chem B 2023; 11:7528-7543. [PMID: 37432655 DOI: 10.1039/d3tb01132a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
Melanin, a widely distributed pigment found in various organisms, possesses distinct structures that can be classified into five main types: eumelanin (found in animals and plants), pheomelanin (found in animals and plants), allomelanin (found in plants), neuromelanin (found in animals), and pyomelanin (found in fungi and bacteria). In this review, we present an overview of the structure and composition of melanin, as well as the various spectroscopic identification methods that can be used, such as Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). We also provide a summary of the extraction methods of melanin and its diverse biological activities, including antibacterial properties, anti-radiation effects, and photothermal effects. The current state of research on natural melanin and its potential for further development is discussed. In particular, the review provides a comprehensive summary of the analysis methods used to determine melanin species, offering valuable insights and references for future research. Overall, this review aims to provide a thorough understanding of the concept and classification of melanin, its structure, physicochemical properties, and structural identification methods, as well as its various applications in the field of biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Song
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100000, China
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 117546, Singapore.
| | - Haoyue Yang
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China.
| | - Song Liu
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China.
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), No. 7 Nanhai Road, Qingdao 266000, China
| | - Huahua Yu
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China.
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), No. 7 Nanhai Road, Qingdao 266000, China
| | - Dan Li
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 117546, Singapore.
| | - Pengcheng Li
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China.
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), No. 7 Nanhai Road, Qingdao 266000, China
| | - Ronge Xing
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China.
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), No. 7 Nanhai Road, Qingdao 266000, China
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2
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Investigation into the suitability of screen printed graphene-melanin pH sensors for use in bacterial culturing applications. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2021.115868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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3
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Cuba JPB, Alves GGB, Galindo LA, Paulin JV, Batagin-Neto A. Sulfonated melanin derivatives: theoretical evaluation of local reactivities and chemical structures. J Mol Model 2021; 27:362. [PMID: 34825273 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-021-04982-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Melanins are natural macromolecules present in several organisms responsible for photoprotection, photosensitivity, ion chelation, and thermoregulation. Such materials have attracted attention due to their interesting electronic properties, which suggest their possible application in biocompatible devices. However, the low typical solubility of traditional melanins does not allow the production of good quality thin films. In this sense, soluble compounds obtained via alternative synthetic routes, for instance, via levodopa (L-DOPA) oxidation in sulfonated solvents (S-melanins), can be considered interesting technological materials. Despite this, the structural and electronic features of these compounds are not fully understood. In this context, here we present a theoretical study on the local reactivities of S-melanin building blocks to better understand possible mechanisms involved in its synthesis and propose extended structures of this material. For this purpose, condensed-to-atoms Fukui indices were evaluated in the framework of the density functional theory (DFT). The obtained results show that the different side groups present in S-melanins do not significantly influence the reactivity of the compound in relation to non-functionalized melanins, indicating that both materials can present similar macroscopic structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- João P B Cuba
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), Campus of Itapeva, Itapeva, SP, 18409-010, Brazil
| | - Gabriel G B Alves
- School of Sciences, POSMAT, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru, SP, 17033-360, Brazil.
| | - Levy A Galindo
- School of Sciences, POSMAT, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru, SP, 17033-360, Brazil
| | - João V Paulin
- Brazilian Nanotechnology National Laboratory (LNNano), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), Campinas, SP, 13083970, Brazil
| | - Augusto Batagin-Neto
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), Campus of Itapeva, Itapeva, SP, 18409-010, Brazil.,School of Sciences, POSMAT, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru, SP, 17033-360, Brazil
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4
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Abstract
Biocompatible and biodegradable powering materials are appealing systems for biomedical and electronic devices. Melanin is a natural and multifunctional material with redox capability, which is of great interest in electrochemical energy storage functionalities. In our work, we explored the use of soluble melanin derivatives as active materials for symmetric solid-state supercapacitors operating in the dark and under illumination. We observed that our devices were photo-pseudocapacitive. Additionally, under illumination, our best device showed a specific capacitance of 57.7 mFg−1 at a scan rate of 0.01 Vs−1, with a decrease of 53% in resistance compared to that in the dark. Our outcome suggests that soluble melanin is a promising material for solid-state powering elements in wearable and environmentally friendly devices.
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5
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Mostert AB. Melanin, the What, the Why and the How: An Introductory Review for Materials Scientists Interested in Flexible and Versatile Polymers. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:1670. [PMID: 34065580 PMCID: PMC8161012 DOI: 10.3390/polym13101670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Today, western society is facing challenges to create new medical technologies to service an aging population as well as the ever-increasing e-waste of electronic devices and sensors. A key solution to these challenges will be the use of biomaterials and biomimetic systems. One material that has been receiving serious attention for its biomedical and device applications is eumelanin. Eumelanin, or commonly known as melanin, is nature's brown-black pigment and is a poly-indolequinone biopolymer, which possess unique physical and chemical properties for material applications. Presented here is a review, aimed at polymer and other materials scientists, to introduce eumelanin as a potential material for research. Covered here are the chemical and physical structures of melanin, an overview of its unique physical and chemical properties, as well as a wide array of applications, but with an emphasis on device and sensing applications. The review is then finished by introducing interested readers to novel synthetic protocols and post synthesis fabrication techniques to enable a starting point for polymer research in this intriguing and complex material.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Bernardus Mostert
- Department of Chemistry, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Wales SA2 8PP, UK
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6
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Galeb HA, Wilkinson EL, Stowell AF, Lin H, Murphy ST, Martin‐Hirsch PL, Mort RL, Taylor AM, Hardy JG. Melanins as Sustainable Resources for Advanced Biotechnological Applications. GLOBAL CHALLENGES (HOBOKEN, NJ) 2021; 5:2000102. [PMID: 33552556 PMCID: PMC7857133 DOI: 10.1002/gch2.202000102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Melanins are a class of biopolymers that are widespread in nature and have diverse origins, chemical compositions, and functions. Their chemical, electrical, optical, and paramagnetic properties offer opportunities for applications in materials science, particularly for medical and technical uses. This review focuses on the application of analytical techniques to study melanins in multidisciplinary contexts with a view to their use as sustainable resources for advanced biotechnological applications, and how these may facilitate the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanaa A. Galeb
- Department of ChemistryLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YBUK
- Department of ChemistryScience and Arts CollegeRabigh CampusKing Abdulaziz UniversityJeddah21577Saudi Arabia
| | - Emma L. Wilkinson
- Department of Biomedical and Life SciencesLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YGUK
| | - Alison F. Stowell
- Department of Organisation, Work and TechnologyLancaster University Management SchoolLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YXUK
| | - Hungyen Lin
- Department of EngineeringLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YWUK
| | - Samuel T. Murphy
- Department of EngineeringLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YWUK
- Materials Science InstituteLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YBUK
| | - Pierre L. Martin‐Hirsch
- Lancashire Teaching Hospitals NHS TrustRoyal Preston HospitalSharoe Green LanePrestonPR2 9HTUK
| | - Richard L. Mort
- Department of Biomedical and Life SciencesLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YGUK
| | - Adam M. Taylor
- Lancaster Medical SchoolLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YWUK
| | - John G. Hardy
- Department of ChemistryLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YBUK
- Materials Science InstituteLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YBUK
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7
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Paulin JV, Batagin-Neto A, Meredith P, Graeff CFO, Mostert AB. Shedding Light on the Free Radical Nature of Sulfonated Melanins. J Phys Chem B 2020; 124:10365-10373. [PMID: 33153262 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.0c08097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Melanin, an important class of natural pigment found in the human body, has stood out as a promising bioelectronic material due to its rather unique collection of electrical properties and biocompatibility. Among the available melanin derivatives, the sulfonated form has proven to not only be able to produce homogeneous device quality thin films with excellent adhesion, even on hydrophobic surfaces, but also to act as an ion to electron transducing element. It has recently been shown that the transport physics (and dominant carrier generation) may be related to a semiquinone free radical species in these materials. Hence, a better understanding of the paramagnetic properties of sulfonated derivatives could shed light on their charge transport behavior and thus enable improvement in regard to use in bioelectronics. Motivated by this question, in this work, different sulfonated melanin derivatives were investigated by hydration-controlled, continuous-wave X-band electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy and electronic structure calculations. Our results show that sulfonated melanin behaves similarly to non-functionalized melanin, but demonstrates a less pronounced response to humidity vis-à-vis standard melanin. We thus speculate on the structural and charge transport behavior in light of these differences with a view to further engineering structure-property relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- J V Paulin
- School of Sciences, Postgraduate Program in Science and Technology of Materials (POSMAT), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru, Brazil.,Department of Physics, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, United Kingdom
| | - A Batagin-Neto
- School of Sciences, Postgraduate Program in Science and Technology of Materials (POSMAT), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru, Brazil.,São Paulo State University (UNESP), Campus of Itapeva, Itapeva, Brazil
| | - P Meredith
- Department of Physics, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, United Kingdom.,School of Mathematics and Physics, University of Queensland, St. Lucia Campus, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - C F O Graeff
- School of Sciences, Postgraduate Program in Science and Technology of Materials (POSMAT), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru, Brazil.,School of Sciences, Department of Physics, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru, Brazil
| | - A B Mostert
- Department of Chemistry, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, United Kingdom
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8
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Albano LGS, Paulin JV, Trino LD, Fernandes SL, Graeff CFDO. Ultraviolet‐protective thin film based on PVA–melanin/rod‐coated silver nanowires and its application as a transparent capacitor. J Appl Polym Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/app.47805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - João Vitor Paulin
- Department of PhysicsSão Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Sciences Bauru 17033‐360 Brazil
| | - Luciana Daniele Trino
- Department of PhysicsSão Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Sciences Bauru 17033‐360 Brazil
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9
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Migliaccio L, Manini P, Altamura D, Giannini C, Tassini P, Maglione MG, Minarini C, Pezzella A. Evidence of Unprecedented High Electronic Conductivity in Mammalian Pigment Based Eumelanin Thin Films After Thermal Annealing in Vacuum. Front Chem 2019; 7:162. [PMID: 30972328 PMCID: PMC6443883 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Melanin denotes a variety of mammalian pigments, including the dark electrically conductive eumelanin and the reddish, sulfur-containing, pheomelanin. Organic (bio)electronics is showing increasing interests in eumelanin exploitation, e.g., for bio-interfaces, but the low conductivity of the material is limiting the development of eumelanin-based devices. Here, for the first time, we report an abrupt increase of the eumelanin electrical conductivity, revealing the highest value presented to date of 318 S/cm. This result, obtained via simple thermal annealing in vacuum of the material, designed on the base of the knowledge of the eumelanin chemical properties, also discloses the actual electronic nature of this material's conduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludovico Migliaccio
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples “Federico II”, Naples, Italy
| | - Paola Manini
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples “Federico II”, Naples, Italy
| | | | | | - Paolo Tassini
- Laboratory for Nanomaterials and Devices (SSPT-PROMAS-NANO), ENEA C. R. Portici, Piazzale Enrico Fermi 1, Località Granatello, Portici, Italy
| | - Maria Grazia Maglione
- Laboratory for Nanomaterials and Devices (SSPT-PROMAS-NANO), ENEA C. R. Portici, Piazzale Enrico Fermi 1, Località Granatello, Portici, Italy
| | - Carla Minarini
- Laboratory for Nanomaterials and Devices (SSPT-PROMAS-NANO), ENEA C. R. Portici, Piazzale Enrico Fermi 1, Località Granatello, Portici, Italy
| | - Alessandro Pezzella
- Institute for Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials (IPCB), CNR, Pozzuoli, Italy
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10
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Paulin JV, Veiga AG, Garcia-Basabe Y, Rocco MLM, Graeff CFO. Structural and optical properties of soluble melanin analogues with enhanced photoluminescence quantum efficiency. POLYM INT 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/pi.5543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- João Vitor Paulin
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), Post-Graduate Program in Materials Science and Technology; Bauru Brazil
| | - Amanda Garcez Veiga
- Institute of Chemistry; Federal University of Rio de Janeiro; Rio de Janeiro Brazil
| | - Yunier Garcia-Basabe
- Institute of Chemistry; Federal University of Rio de Janeiro; Rio de Janeiro Brazil
| | | | - Carlos FO Graeff
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), Post-Graduate Program in Materials Science and Technology; Bauru Brazil
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), Department of Physics; Bauru Brazil
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11
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Bonavolontà C, Lisio CD, d'Ischia M, Maddalena P, Manini P, Pezzella A, Valentino M. Anomalous evolution of broadband optical absorption reveals dynamic solid state reorganization during eumelanin build-up in thin films. Sci Rep 2017; 7:522. [PMID: 28364123 PMCID: PMC5428701 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-00597-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The origin of eumelanin optical properties remains a formidable conundrum preventing a detailed understanding of the complex photo-protective role of these widespread natural pigments and the rational design of innovative bioinspired materials for optoelectronic applications. Here we report the unusual kinetic and thickness-dependent evolution of the optical properties of black eumelanin polymers generated by spontaneous aerial polymerization of 5,6-dihydroxyindole (DHI) thin films (0.1-1 μm), consistent with peculiar solid state reorganization mechanisms governing broadband absorption. The complete reversal of eumelanin UV-visible transmittance spectrum curvature on passing from 0.2 to 0.5 μm thick films, the marked increase in visible extinction coefficients with increasing film thickness and the higher UV extinction coefficients in slowly vs. rapidly generated polymers concur to support distinct dynamic regimes of solid-state molecular reorganization at the nanoscale level and to do affect the development of broadband visible absorption. Solid state control of molecular reorganization disclosed herein may delineate new rational strategies for tuning optical properties in eumelanin thin films for optoelectronic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmela Bonavolontà
- Department of Physics "E. Pancini", University of Naples "Federico II", Via Cintia, I-80126, Napoli, Italy.
- INFN, Sezione di Napoli, Via Cintia, 80126, Napoli, Italy.
| | - Corrado de Lisio
- Department of Physics "E. Pancini", University of Naples "Federico II", Via Cintia, I-80126, Napoli, Italy
- CNR-SPIN U.O.S. di Napoli, Via Cintia, 80126, Napoli, Italy
| | - Marco d'Ischia
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Cintia 4, I-80126, Napoli, Italy
| | - Pasqualino Maddalena
- Department of Physics "E. Pancini", University of Naples "Federico II", Via Cintia, I-80126, Napoli, Italy
| | - Paola Manini
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Cintia 4, I-80126, Napoli, Italy
| | - Alessandro Pezzella
- INFN, Sezione di Napoli, Via Cintia, 80126, Napoli, Italy.
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Cintia 4, I-80126, Napoli, Italy.
- Institute for Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials (IPCB), CNR, Via Campi Flegrei 34, 80078, Pozzuoli (Na), Italy.
| | - Massimo Valentino
- INFN, Sezione di Napoli, Via Cintia, 80126, Napoli, Italy
- CNR-SPIN U.O.S. di Napoli, Via Cintia, 80126, Napoli, Italy
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12
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Abstract
Melanins are ancient biological pigments found in all kingdoms of life. In fungi, their role in microbial pathogenesis is well established; however, these complex biomolecules also confer upon fungal microorganisms the faculty to tolerate extreme environments such as the Earth's poles, the International Space Station and places contaminated by toxic metals and ionizing radiation. A remarkable property of melanin is its capacity to interact with a wide range of electromagnetic radiation frequencies, functioning as a protecting and energy harvesting pigment. Other roles of fungal melanin include scavenging of free radical, thermo-tolerance, metal ion sequestration, cell development, and mechanical-chemical cellular strength. In this review, we explore the various functions ascribed to this biological pigment in fungi and its remarkable physicochemical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radames JB Cordero
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205
| | - Arturo Casadevall
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205
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13
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Klosterman L, Bettinger CJ. Calcium-Mediated Control of Polydopamine Film Oxidation and Iron Chelation. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 18:E14. [PMID: 28025498 PMCID: PMC5297649 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18010014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Revised: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The facile preparation of conformal polydopamine (PDA) films on broad classes of materials has prompted extensive research into a wide variety of potential applications for PDA. The constituent molecular species in PDA exhibit diverse chemical moieties, and therefore highly variable properties of PDA-based devices may evolve with post-processing conditions. Here we report the use of redox-inactive cations for oxidative post-processing of deposited PDA films. PDA films incubated in alkaline CaCl₂ solutions exhibit accelerated oxidative evolution in a dose-dependent manner. PDA films incubated in CaCl₂ solutions exhibit 53% of the oxidative charge transfer compared to pristine PDA films. Carboxylic acid groups generated from the oxidation process lower the isoelectric point of PDA films from pH = 4.0 ± 0.2 to pH = 3.1 ± 0.3. PDA films exposed to CaCl₂ solutions during post-processing also enhance Fe2+/Fe3+ chelation compared to pristine PDA films. These data illustrate that the molecular heterogeneity and non-equilibrium character of as-deposited PDA films afford control over the final composition by choosing post-processing conditions, but also demands forethought into how the performance of PDA-incorporated devices may change over time in salt solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke Klosterman
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
| | - Christopher J Bettinger
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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14
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Ambrico M. SPECIAL ISSUE: Melanin, a long lasting history bridging natural pigments and organic bioelectronics. POLYM INT 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/pi.5239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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