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Zhu M, Tang J, Shi T, Ma X, Wang Y, Wu X, Li H, Hua R. Uptake, translocation and metabolism of imidacloprid loaded within fluorescent mesoporous silica nanoparticles in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2022; 232:113243. [PMID: 35093815 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.113243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Revised: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Fluorescence-labeling technology has been widely used for rapid detection of pesticides in agricultural production. However, there are few studies on the use of this technology to investigate pesticide uptake and transport in plants with fluorescent nanoparticle formulations. Here, we investigated uptake, transport, accumulation and metabolism of imidacloprid loaded in fluorescent mesoporous SiO2 nanoparticles (Im@FL-MSNs) in tomato plants, and compared the results with the pesticide application in granular formulation. The results revealed that Im@FL-MSNs applied via root uptake and foliar spray both could effectively transport in tomato plants and carry the imidacloprid to plant tissues. Neither Im@FL-MSNs nor imidacloprid was detected inside of tomato fruits from root uptake or foliar spray applications. Compared with the foliar application of granular formulation, imidacloprid in Im@FL-MSNs demonstrated a higher concentration in leaves (1.14 ± 0.07 mg/kg > 1.08 ± 0.04 mg/kg, 1.13 ± 0.09 mg/kg > 1.11 ± 0.02 mg/kg), longer half-life (0.84 d < 1.31 d, 0.90 d < 1.36 d) and small numbers of metabolites formed. These results suggest that mesoporous silica nanoparticles could serve as an effective and efficient pesticide carrier for achieving the high use efficiency in plant protection. The information is also helpful to guide the pesticide applications and assess the risks associated with environmental quality and dietary consumption of vegetables.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meiqing Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Agri-Food Safety of Anhui Province, School of Resources and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, No. 130 Changjiang West Road, Hefei 230036, China; School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Anhui Polytechnic University, Wuhu, Anhui 241000, China
| | - Jun Tang
- Key Laboratory of Agri-Food Safety of Anhui Province, School of Resources and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, No. 130 Changjiang West Road, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Taozhong Shi
- Key Laboratory of Agri-Food Safety of Anhui Province, School of Resources and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, No. 130 Changjiang West Road, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Xin Ma
- Key Laboratory of Agri-Food Safety of Anhui Province, School of Resources and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, No. 130 Changjiang West Road, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Yi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agri-Food Safety of Anhui Province, School of Resources and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, No. 130 Changjiang West Road, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Xiangwei Wu
- Key Laboratory of Agri-Food Safety of Anhui Province, School of Resources and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, No. 130 Changjiang West Road, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Hui Li
- Department of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
| | - Rimao Hua
- Key Laboratory of Agri-Food Safety of Anhui Province, School of Resources and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, No. 130 Changjiang West Road, Hefei 230036, China.
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Ye X, Liu M, Zhao N, Xiao C, Xu H, Jia J. Targeted delivery of emamectin benzoate by functionalized polysuccinimide nanoparticles for the flowering cabbage and controlling Plutella xylostella. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2022; 78:758-769. [PMID: 34689392 DOI: 10.1002/ps.6689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plutella xylostella, one of the most destructive and cosmopolitan pests of cruciferous crops, is especially harmful to the young tissues of the flowering cabbage (Brassica campestris L.). Although emamectin benzoate (EB) has high insecticidal activity against P. xylostella, one major reason of low utilization for EB is the lack of internal transport in the young plants. RESULTS In this study, four kinds of functional EB/polysuccinimide (PSI) with glycine methylester nanoparticles (EB@PGA NPs) were prepared. The obtained EB@PGA NPs could effectively protect EB from photolysis, and the degradation rate of EB@PGA NPs was <30% in 24 h. Simulating the intestinal pH = 9 of P. xylostella, the highest cumulative release rate of EB@PGA NPs could reach 89.61% in 24 h. Furthermore, EB@PGA NPs could delivery EB into the young tissues of the flowering cabbage through the nanocarrier, and the highest transport efficiency of EB@PGA25 reached 1.437%. The bioactivity of EB@PGA25 against P. xylostella larvae (LC50 = 0.34 μg mL-1 ) was 1.6-fold higher than that of EB (LC50 = 0.53 μg mL-1 ). EB@PGA could easily become 'internalized' into the intestinal wall of P. xylostella, thus increasing the penetration of the drug and enhancing the insecticidal activity. CONCLUSION The accurate delivery of insecticides by PGA nanocarriers into young tissues of plants could be a promising new method for the efficient management of field pests and diseases. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Ye
- Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Meichen Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ning Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chunxia Xiao
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hanhong Xu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jinliang Jia
- Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
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Leslie JF, Moretti A, Mesterházy Á, Ameye M, Audenaert K, Singh PK, Richard-Forget F, Chulze SN, Ponte EMD, Chala A, Battilani P, Logrieco AF. Key Global Actions for Mycotoxin Management in Wheat and Other Small Grains. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:725. [PMID: 34679018 PMCID: PMC8541216 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13100725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins in small grains are a significant and long-standing problem. These contaminants may be produced by members of several fungal genera, including Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Claviceps, and Penicillium. Interventions that limit contamination can be made both pre-harvest and post-harvest. Many problems and strategies to control them and the toxins they produce are similar regardless of the location at which they are employed, while others are more common in some areas than in others. Increased knowledge of host-plant resistance, better agronomic methods, improved fungicide management, and better storage strategies all have application on a global basis. We summarize the major pre- and post-harvest control strategies currently in use. In the area of pre-harvest, these include resistant host lines, fungicides and their application guided by epidemiological models, and multiple cultural practices. In the area of post-harvest, drying, storage, cleaning and sorting, and some end-product processes were the most important at the global level. We also employed the Nominal Group discussion technique to identify and prioritize potential steps forward and to reduce problems associated with human and animal consumption of these grains. Identifying existing and potentially novel mechanisms to effectively manage mycotoxin problems in these grains is essential to ensure the safety of humans and domesticated animals that consume these grains.
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Affiliation(s)
- John F. Leslie
- Throckmorton Plant Sciences Center, Department of Plant Pathology, 1712 Claflin Avenue, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA;
| | - Antonio Moretti
- Institute of the Science of Food Production, National Research Council (CNR-ISPA), Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy;
| | - Ákos Mesterházy
- Cereal Research Non-Profit Ltd., Alsókikötő sor 9, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary;
| | - Maarten Ameye
- Department of Plant and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (M.A.); (K.A.)
| | - Kris Audenaert
- Department of Plant and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (M.A.); (K.A.)
| | - Pawan K. Singh
- International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Apdo. Postal 6-641, Mexico 06600, DF, Mexico;
| | | | - Sofía N. Chulze
- Research Institute on Mycology and Mycotoxicology (IMICO), National Scientific and Technical Research Council-National University of Río Cuarto (CONICET-UNRC), 5800 Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina;
| | - Emerson M. Del Ponte
- Departamento de Fitopatologia, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa 36570-900, MG, Brazil;
| | - Alemayehu Chala
- College of Agriculture, Hawassa University, P.O. Box 5, Hawassa 1000, Ethiopia;
| | - Paola Battilani
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environmental Sciences, Universitá Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, via E. Parmense, 84-29122 Piacenza, Italy;
| | - Antonio F. Logrieco
- Institute of the Science of Food Production, National Research Council (CNR-ISPA), Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy;
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Suganthi A, Rajeswari E, Sivakumar V, Bhuvaneswari K, Madhu Sudhanan E, Sathiah N, Prabakaran K. Analysis of tebuconazole residues in coconut water, kernel and leaves using LC-MS/MS. Food Chem 2021; 359:129920. [PMID: 33951605 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
A method was validated for determining tebuconazole residues in coconut water, kernel and leaves using Liquid chromatography-Mass spectrometry/Mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) with electro spray ionization in positive ion mode. Samples were extracted with acetonitrile and subsequent clean-up was done using dispersive solid phase extraction. Recovery ranged between 70 and 114.39 % and the RSD was between 0.64 and 10.24 %. Root feeding studies with tebuconazole @ 5 and 10 mL/100 mL of water/tree revealed the presence of tebuconazole residues in coconut leaves until three days after treatment but dissipated to below quantifiable limit on 5th day at single dose while the residues went below quantifiable limit after 10 days at double the dose. Residues were below quantifiable limit in coconut water and kernel until three days. Data obtained from the study were used for estimating the risks associated with the exposures to tebuconazole residues in coconut.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Suganthi
- Department of Agricultural Entomology, TNAU, Coimbatore, India.
| | - E Rajeswari
- Coconut Research Station, Aliyar, TNAU, India
| | - V Sivakumar
- Coconut Research Station, Aliyar, TNAU, India
| | - K Bhuvaneswari
- Department of Agricultural Entomology, TNAU, Coimbatore, India
| | | | - N Sathiah
- Department of Agricultural Entomology, TNAU, Coimbatore, India
| | - K Prabakaran
- Directorate of Plant Protection Studies, Coimbatore, India
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Shi Y, Ye Z, Hu P, Wei D, Gao Q, Zhao Z, Xiao J, Liao M, Cao H. Removal of prothioconazole using screened microorganisms and identification of biodegradation products via UPLC-QqTOF-MS. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2020; 206:111203. [PMID: 32866888 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Degradation of the prothioconazole by three strains of microorganisms isolated from activated sludge obtained from a pesticide factory was assessed, and an ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QqTOF-MS) method for the determination of prothioconazole and its metabolites was established. The optimal conditions for the degradation of prothioconazole were determined by single factor optimization experiments. A degradation rate of 93.32% is achieved when the prothioconazole is co-cultured with the strain W313 at a cultivation time of 60 h, a cultivation temperature of 30 °C, a pH of 6.33, a prothioconazole concentration of 50 mg L-1, a microorganism volume of 10%, and a dextrose volume of 4%. The three effective microorganism strains were identified by morphological and molecular biology to be Candida tropicalis, Enterobacter cloacae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. UPLC-QqTOF-MS analysis allowed the identification of 62 different prothioconazole degradation products produced by the strain cultures, with prothioconazole-desthio, prothioconazole-dechloropropyl, and oxidizing prothioconazole being the main products. In addition, degradation products from different strains and conditions were compared. The results of scatter plot (S-Plot) analysis indicated that C9H7NO, C10H17N7, and C12H13ClN2O were only detected in the products incubated with Enterobacter cloacae. Thus, this study demonstrates that Enterobacter cloacae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa possesses high potential for bioremediation of prothioconazole-contaminated environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhong Shi
- School of Resource and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, PR China; Provincial Key Laboratory for Agri-Food Safety, Hefei, 230036, Hefei, 230036, PR China
| | - Zhuang Ye
- School of Resource and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, PR China
| | - Peng Hu
- School of Resource and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, PR China
| | - Dong Wei
- School of Resource and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, PR China
| | - Quan Gao
- School of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, PR China; Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management on Crops, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, PR China
| | - Zhenyu Zhao
- School of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, PR China
| | - Jinjing Xiao
- School of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, PR China; Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management on Crops, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, PR China
| | - Min Liao
- School of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, PR China; Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management on Crops, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, PR China
| | - Haiqun Cao
- School of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, PR China; Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management on Crops, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, PR China.
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Zhai W, Zhang L, Cui J, Wei Y, Wang P, Liu D, Zhou Z. The biological activities of prothioconazole enantiomers and their toxicity assessment on aquatic organisms. Chirality 2019; 31:468-475. [DOI: 10.1002/chir.23075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Revised: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wangjing Zhai
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Department of Applied ChemistryChina Agricultural University Beijing China
| | - Linlin Zhang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Department of Applied ChemistryChina Agricultural University Beijing China
| | - Jingna Cui
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Department of Applied ChemistryChina Agricultural University Beijing China
| | - Yimu Wei
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Department of Applied ChemistryChina Agricultural University Beijing China
| | - Peng Wang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Department of Applied ChemistryChina Agricultural University Beijing China
| | - Donghui Liu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Department of Applied ChemistryChina Agricultural University Beijing China
| | - Zhiqiang Zhou
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Department of Applied ChemistryChina Agricultural University Beijing China
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Smith JL, Limay-Rios V, Hooker DC, Schaafsma AW. Fusarium graminearum Mycotoxins in Maize Associated With Striacosta albicosta (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Injury. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2018; 111:1227-1242. [PMID: 29547905 DOI: 10.1093/jee/toy005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Western bean cutworm, Striacosta albicosta (Smith; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) has become a key pest of maize, Zea mays (L.), in Ontario, Canada which is challenging to control due to its lack of susceptibility to most Bt-maize events. Injury by S. albicosta may exacerbate Fusarium graminearum (Schwabe; Hypocreales: Nectriaceae) infection through provision of entry points on the ear. The objectives of this study were to: investigate the relationship between injury by S. albicosta and deoxynivalenol (DON) accumulation; evaluate non-Bt and Bt-maize hybrids, with and without insecticide and fungicide application; and determine optimal insecticide-fungicide application timing for reducing S. albicosta injury and DON accumulation. The incidence of injury by S. albicosta and ear rot severity were found to increase DON concentrations under favorable environmental conditions for F. graminearum infection. Incidence of S. albicosta injury was more important than severity of injury for DON accumulation which may be due to larval consumption of infected kernels. The Vip3A × Cry1Ab event provided superior protection from the incidence and severity of S. albicosta injury compared to non-Bt or Cry1F hybrids. Insecticide application to a Vip3A × Cry1Ab hybrid did not reduce injury further; however, lower severity of injury was observed for non-Bt and Cry1F hybrids when pyrethroids or diamides were applied at early VT or R1 stages. DON concentrations were reduced with application of prothioconazole fungicide tank-mixed with insecticide at late VT (before silk browning) or when insecticide was applied at early VT followed by prothioconazole at R1. The application of an insecticide/fungicide tank-mix is the most efficient approach for maize hybrids lacking high-dose insecticidal proteins against S. albicosta and F. graminearum tolerance. Results demonstrate that reducing the risk of DON accumulation requires a strategic approach to manage complex associations among S. albicosta, F. graminearum and the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jocelyn L Smith
- Department of Plant Agriculture, Ridgetown Campus, University of Guelph, Ridgetown, ON, Canada
| | - Victor Limay-Rios
- Department of Plant Agriculture, Ridgetown Campus, University of Guelph, Ridgetown, ON, Canada
| | - David C Hooker
- Department of Plant Agriculture, Ridgetown Campus, University of Guelph, Ridgetown, ON, Canada
| | - Arthur W Schaafsma
- Department of Plant Agriculture, Ridgetown Campus, University of Guelph, Ridgetown, ON, Canada
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Esquivel BD, White TC. Accumulation of Azole Drugs in the Fungal Plant Pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae Is the Result of Facilitated Diffusion Influx. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1320. [PMID: 28751884 PMCID: PMC5508014 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Magnaporthe oryzae is an agricultural mold that causes disease in rice, resulting in devastating crop losses. Since rice is a world-wide staple food crop, infection by M. oryzae poses a serious global food security threat. Fungicides, including azole antifungals, are used to prevent and combat M. oryzae plant infections. The target of azoles is CYP51, an enzyme localized on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and required for fungal ergosterol biosynthesis. However, many basic drug-pathogen interactions, such as how the azole gets past the fungal cell wall and plasma membrane, and is transported to the ER, are not understood. In addition, reduced intracellular accumulation of antifungals has consistently been observed as a drug resistance mechanism in many fungal species. Studying the basic biology of drug-pathogen interactions may elucidate uncharacterized mechanisms of drug resistance and susceptibility in M. oryzae and potentially other related fungal pathogens. We characterized intracellular accumulation of azole drugs in M. oryzae using a radioactively labeled fluconazole uptake assay to gain insight on whether azoles enter the cell by passive diffusion, active transport, or facilitated diffusion. We show that azole accumulation is not ATP-dependent, nor does it rely on a pH-dependent process. Instead there is evidence for azole drug uptake in M. oryzae by a facilitated diffusion mechanism. The uptake system is specific for azole or azole-like compounds and can be modulated depending on cell phase and growth media. In addition, we found that co-treatment of M. oryzae with ‘repurposed’ clorgyline and radio-labeled fluconazole prevented energy-dependent efflux of fluconazole, resulting in an increased intracellular concentration of fluconazole in the fungal cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brooke D Esquivel
- Division of Cell Biology and Biophysics, School of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas CityMO, United States
| | - Theodore C White
- Division of Cell Biology and Biophysics, School of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas CityMO, United States
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Lehoczki-Krsjak S, Varga M, Mesterházy Á. Distribution of prothioconazole and tebuconazole between wheat ears and flag leaves following fungicide spraying with different nozzle types at flowering. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2015; 71:105-113. [PMID: 24585700 DOI: 10.1002/ps.3774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2013] [Revised: 01/31/2014] [Accepted: 02/25/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Wheat ears are difficult targets from the aspect of fungicide spraying. Sideward-spraying nozzle types may enhance the ear coverage, which may possibly lead to higher effectiveness in the management of Fusarium head blight (FHB). RESULTS On average, sideward-spraying Turbo TeeJet Duo nozzles resulted in 1.30 and 1.43 times higher prothioconazole-desthio and tebuconazole contents and Turbo FloodJet nozzles in 1.08 and 1.34 times higher prothioconazole-desthio and tebuconazole contents in wheat ears by comparison with those achieved with vertically-spraying XR TeeJet nozzles. In contrast, the vertically-spraying XR TeeJet nozzles resulted in 1.57 and 1.31 times higher prothioconazole-desthio and tebuconazole contents in the flag leaf blade. The degradation of the active ingredient (AI) depended on the year, the cultivar and the plant organ, but not on the spraying method. There was no clear relationship between the efficacy of a given nozzle type and the outcome of the FHB epidemic. CONCLUSIONS The ear coverage and therefore the AI content have been improved with the two sideward-spraying nozzle types. There was no effective translocation of the AI content between the ears and flag leaf blades. Prothioconazole and tebuconazole proved to be highly effective in the management of FHB, but the FHB resistance of the cultivar was also decisive.
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