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Rasmusson K, Fagerlund F. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) as contaminants in groundwater resources - A comprehensive review of subsurface transport processes. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 362:142663. [PMID: 38908440 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/24/2024]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent contaminants in the environment. An increased awareness of adverse health effects related to PFAS has further led to stricter regulations for several of these substances in e.g. drinking water in many countries. Groundwater constitutes an important source of raw water for drinking water production. A thorough understanding of PFAS subsurface fate and transport mechanisms leading to contamination of groundwater resources is therefore essential for management of raw water resources. A review of scientific literature on the subject of processes affecting subsurface PFAS fate and transport was carried out. This article compiles the current knowledge of such processes, mainly focusing on perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAA), in soil- and groundwater systems. Further, a compilation of data on transport parameters such as solubility and distribution coefficients, as well as, insight gained and conclusions drawn from the reviewed material are presented. As the use of certain fire-fighting foams has been identified as the major source of groundwater contamination in many countries, research related to this type of pollution source has been given extra focus. Uptake of PFAS in biota is outside the scope of this review. The review showed a large spread in the magnitude of distribution coefficients and solubility for individual PFAS. Also, it is clear that the influence of multiple factors makes site-specific evaluation of distribution coefficients valuable. This article aims at giving the reader a comprehensive overview of the subject, and providing a base for further work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Rasmusson
- Uppsala Water and Waste AB, Virdings allé 32B, SE-75450, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Fritjof Fagerlund
- Uppsala University, Department of Earth Sciences, Villavägen 16, 75236, Uppsala, Sweden
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2
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Das TK, Han Z, Banerjee S, Raoelison OD, Adeleye AS, Mohanty SK. PFAS release from the subsurface and capillary fringe during managed aquifer recharge. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 343:123166. [PMID: 38110050 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.123166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023]
Abstract
Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) is a sustainable way of harvesting groundwater in water-stressed urbanized areas, where reclaimed wastewater or stormwater is applied on a large basin to infiltrate water into the groundwater aquifer naturally. This process could rapidly fluctuate the water table and move the capillary fringe boundary, and the change in flow dynamic and associated geochemical changes could trigger the release of sequestered pollutants, including per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), also known as 'forever chemicals', from the subsurface and capillary fringe. Yet, the potential of PFAS release from the subsurface and capillary zone during recharge events when the water table rapidly fluctuates has not been evaluated. This study uses laboratory column experiments to simulate PFAS release from pre-contaminated subsurface and capillary fringe during groundwater table fluctuation. The results reveal that the groundwater level fluctuations during MAR increased the release of perfluorobutanesulfonic acid (PFBS) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) from the capillary fringe, but the fraction released depended on PFAS type and their association with soil colloids. A higher proportion of PFOS in column effluent was found to be associated with particles, while a greater portion of released PFBS was in a free or dissolved state. The direction of water table fluctuation did not affect the release of PFAS in this study. A lack of change in the concentration of bromide, a conservative tracer, during flow interruption, indicates that diffusion of PFAS through reconnected pores during water table rise had an insignificant effect on PFAS release. Overall, this study provides insights into how PFAS can be released from the subsurface and capillary fringe during managed aquifer recharge when the groundwater level is expected to fluctuate quickly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tonoy K Das
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, USA.
| | - Ziwei Han
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Swapnil Banerjee
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Onja D Raoelison
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Adeyemi S Adeleye
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Sanjay K Mohanty
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, USA.
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3
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Rafiei V, Nejadhashemi AP. Watershed scale PFAS fate and transport model for source identification and management implications. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 240:120073. [PMID: 37235893 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Developing strategic plans for the remediation and mitigation of pre- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in soil, groundwater, and surface water requires an understanding of the fate and transport of these chemicals on a regional scale. To fill this knowledge gap, we developed a distributed hydrogeochemical model and applied it to a large-scale watershed with various point and non-point sources of a long-chain, highly persistent PFAS compound known as perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS). The results showed that the developed model could reproduce the spatiotemporal concentration of PFOS across a large and diverse watershed. Herein, our first objective was to quantify the PFOS transport from the unsaturated zone to the groundwater and surface water via leaching, surface runoff, lateral flow, and sediment transport. The second objective was to identify factors influencing PFOS release from confirmed and suspected PFAS sites and urban and agricultural areas. The modeling results show that surface runoff played a significant role in PFOS transport, with urban areas and industrial sites being major contributors. In addition, sediment transport was found to be a notable pathway for PFOS release, particularly from sites with biosolids application. Further analysis revealed the relative importance of topography, soil water retention, and water-solid adsorption factors in determining PFOS transport dynamics at the watershed scale for better source identification and targeted management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vahid Rafiei
- Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, Michigan State University (MSU), USA
| | - A Pouyan Nejadhashemi
- Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, Michigan State University (MSU), USA.
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4
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Jenness GR, Koval AM, Etz BD, Shukla MK. Atomistic insights into the hydrodefluorination of PFAS using silylium catalysts. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2022; 24:2085-2099. [PMID: 36165287 DOI: 10.1039/d2em00291d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Fluorochemicals are a persistent environmental contaminant that require specialized techniques for degradation and capture. In particular, recent attention on per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) has led to numerous explorations of different techniques for degrading the super-strong C-F bonds found in these fluorochemicals. In this study, we investigated the hydrodefluorination mechanism using silylium-carborane salts for the degradation of PFAS at the density functional theory (DFT) level. We find that the degradation process involves both a cationic silylium (Et3Si+) and a hydridic silylium (Et3SiH) to facilitate the defluorination and hydride-addition events. Additionally, the role of carborane ([HCB11H5F6]-) is to force unoccupied anti-bonding orbitals to be partially occupied, weakening the C-F bond. We also show that changing the substituents on carborane from fluorine to other halogens weakens the C-F bond even further, with iodic carborane ([HCB11H5I6]-) having the greatest weakening effect. Moreover, our calculations reveal why the C-F bonds are resistant to degradation, and how the silylium-carborane chemistry is able to chemically transform these bonds into C-H bonds. We believe that our results are further applicable to other halocarbons, and can be used to treat either our existing stocks of these chemicals or to treat concentrated solutions following filtration and capture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glen R Jenness
- Environmental Laboratory, US Army Engineer Research and Development Center, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg 39180, Mississippi, USA.
| | - Ashlyn M Koval
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE), 1299 Bethel Valley Rd, Oak Ridge 37830, Tennessee, USA
| | - Brian D Etz
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE), 1299 Bethel Valley Rd, Oak Ridge 37830, Tennessee, USA
| | - Manoj K Shukla
- Environmental Laboratory, US Army Engineer Research and Development Center, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg 39180, Mississippi, USA.
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5
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Manning IM, Guan Pin Chew N, Macdonald HP, Miller KE, Strynar MJ, Coronell O, Leibfarth FA. Hydrolytically Stable Ionic Fluorogels for High-Performance Remediation of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) from Natural Water. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202208150. [PMID: 35945652 PMCID: PMC9711936 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202208150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
PFAS are known bioaccumulative and persistent chemicals which pollute natural waters globally. There exists a lack of granular sorbents to efficiently remove both legacy and emerging PFAS at environmentally relevant concentrations. Herein, we report a class of polymer networks with a synergistic combination of ionic and fluorous components that serve as granular materials for the removal of anionic PFAS from water. A library of Ionic Fluorogels (IFs) with systematic variation in charge density and polymer network architecture was synthesized from hydrolytically stable fluorous building blocks. The IFs were demonstrated as effective sorbents for the removal of 21 legacy and emerging PFAS from a natural water and were regenerable over multiple cycles of reuse. Comparison of one IF to a commercial ion exchange resin in mini-rapid small-scale column tests demonstrated superior performance for the removal of short-chain PFAS from natural water under operationally relevant conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene M. Manning
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill131 South RdChapel HillNC 27599USA
| | - Nick Guan Pin Chew
- Department of Environmental Sciences and EngineeringGillings School of Global Public HealthUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill135 Dauer DrChapel HillNC 27599USA
| | - Haley P. Macdonald
- Department of Environmental Sciences and EngineeringGillings School of Global Public HealthUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill135 Dauer DrChapel HillNC 27599USA
| | - Kelsey E. Miller
- Office of Research and DevelopmentCenter for Environmental Measurement and ModelingU.S. Environmental Protection AgencyResearch Triangle ParkNC 27709USA
| | - Mark J. Strynar
- Office of Research and DevelopmentCenter for Environmental Measurement and ModelingU.S. Environmental Protection AgencyResearch Triangle ParkNC 27709USA
| | - Orlando Coronell
- Department of Environmental Sciences and EngineeringGillings School of Global Public HealthUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill135 Dauer DrChapel HillNC 27599USA
| | - Frank A. Leibfarth
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill131 South RdChapel HillNC 27599USA
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6
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Battye NJ, Patch DJ, Roberts DMD, O'Connor NM, Turner LP, Kueper BH, Hulley ME, Weber KP. Use of a horizontal ball mill to remediate per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in soil. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 835:155506. [PMID: 35483472 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
There is a need for destructive technologies for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in soil. While planetary ball mill have been shown successful degradation of PFAS, there are issues surrounding scale up (maximum size is typically 0.5 L cylinders). While having lower energy outputs, horizontal ball mills, for which scale up is not a limiting factor, already exist at commercial/industrial sizes from the mining, metallurgic and agricultural industries, which could be re-purposed. This study evaluated the effectiveness of horizontal ball mills in degrading perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate (6:2 FTSA), and aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) spiked on nepheline syenite sand. Horizontal ball milling was also applied to two different soil types (sand dominant and clay dominant) collected from a firefighting training area (FFTA). Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry was used to track 21 target PFAS throughout the milling process. High-resolution accurate mass spectrometry was also used to identify the presence and degradation of 19 non-target fluorotelomer substances, including 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonamido betaine (FtSaB), 7:3 fluorotelomer betaine (FtB), and 6:2 fluorotelomer thioether amido sulfonate (FtTAoS). In the presence of potassium hydroxide (KOH), used as a co-milling reagent, PFOS, 6:2 FTSA, and the non-target fluorotelomer substances in the AFFF were found to undergo upwards of 81%, 97%, and 100% degradation, respectively. Despite the inherent added complexity associated with field soils, better PFAS degradation was observed on the FFTA soils over the spiked NSS, and more specifically, on the FFTA clay over the FFTA sand. These results held through scale-up, going from the 1 L to the 25 L cylinders. The results of this study support further scale-up in preparation for on-site pilot tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J Battye
- Environmental Sciences Group, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - David J Patch
- Environmental Sciences Group, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Dylan M D Roberts
- Environmental Sciences Group, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Natalia M O'Connor
- Environmental Sciences Group, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Lauren P Turner
- Department of Civil Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Bernard H Kueper
- Department of Civil Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Michael E Hulley
- Environmental Sciences Group, Department of Civil Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Kela P Weber
- Environmental Sciences Group, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, ON, Canada; Department of Civil Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada.
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7
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Manning IM, Chew NGP, Macdonald HP, Miller KE, Strynar MJ, Coronell O, Leibfarth F. Hydrolytically Stable Ionic Fluorogels for High‐Performance Remediation of Per‐ and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) from Natural Water. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202208150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Irene M Manning
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Kenan Science Library: The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Chemistry 27599 Chapel Hill UNITED STATES
| | - Nick Guan Pin Chew
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Kenan Science Library: The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Environmental Sciences and Engineering UNITED STATES
| | - Haley P Macdonald
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Kenan Science Library: The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Environmental Sciences and Engineering UNITED STATES
| | - Kelsey E Miller
- Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling UNITED STATES
| | - Mark J Strynar
- Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling UNITED STATES
| | - Orlando Coronell
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Kenan Science Library: The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Environmental Sciences and Engineering UNITED STATES
| | - Frank Leibfarth
- University of North Carolina Chemistry University of North CarolinaKenan Labs A500 27599 Chapel Hill UNITED STATES
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8
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Kulkarni PR, Adamson DT, Popovic J, Newell CJ. Modeling a well-characterized perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) source and plume using the REMChlor-MD model to account for matrix diffusion. JOURNAL OF CONTAMINANT HYDROLOGY 2022; 247:103986. [PMID: 35279484 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconhyd.2022.103986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Two of the most important retention processes for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in groundwater likely are sorption and matrix diffusion. The objective of this study was to model concentration and mass discharge of one PFAS, perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), with matrix diffusion processes incorporated using data from a highly chemically- and geologically-characterized site. When matrix diffusion is incorporated into the REMChlor-MD model for PFOS at this research site, it easily reproduces the field data for three key metrics (concentration, mass discharge, and total mass). However, the no-matrix diffusion model produced a much poorer match. Additionally, after about 40 years of groundwater transport, field data and the REMChlor-MD model both showed the majority (80%) of the measured PFOS mass that exited the source zones was located in downgradient low permeability zones due to matrix diffusion. As such, most of the PFOS mass is not available to immediately migrate downgradient via advection in the more permeable sands at this site, which has important implications for monitored natural attenuation (MNA). Plume expansion over the next 50 years is forecasted to be limited, from a 350-m plume length in 2017 to 550 m in 2070, as matrix diffusion will attenuate groundwater plumes by slowing their expansion. This phenomenon is important for constituents that do not degrade, such as PFOS, compared to those susceptible to degradation. Overall, this work shows that matrix diffusion is a relevant process in environmental PFAS persistence and slows the rate of plume expansion over time.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jovan Popovic
- Naval Facilities Engineering and Expeditionary Warfare Center, Port Hueneme, CA 93041, USA.
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9
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Farhat SK, Newell CJ, Lee SA, Looney BB, Falta RW. Impact of matrix diffusion on the migration of groundwater plumes for Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) and other non-degradable compounds. JOURNAL OF CONTAMINANT HYDROLOGY 2022; 247:103987. [PMID: 35286952 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconhyd.2022.103987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Groundwater fate and transport modeling results demonstrate that matrix diffusion plays a role in attenuating the expansion of groundwater plumes of "non-degrading" or highly recalcitrant compounds. This is especially significant for systems where preferred destructive attenuation processes, such as biological and abiotic degradation, are weak or ineffective for plume control. Under these conditions, models of nondestructive physical attenuation processes, traditionally dispersion or sorption, do not demonstrate sufficient plume control unless matrix diffusion is considered. Matrix diffusion has been shown to be a notable emergent impact of geological heterogeneity, typically associated with back diffusion and extending remediation timeframes through concentration tailing of the trailing edge of a plume. However, less attention has been placed on evaluating how matrix diffusion can serve as an attenuation mechanism for the leading edge of a plume of non-degrading compounds like perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), including perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). In this study, the REMChlor-MD model was parametrically applied to a generic unconsolidated and heterogeneous geologic site with a constant PFOS source and no degradation of PFOS in the downgradient edge of the plume. Low levels of mechanical dispersion and retardation were used in the model for three different geologic heterogeneity cases ranging from no matrix diffusion (e.g., sand only) to considerable matrix diffusion using low permeability ("low-k") layers/lenses and/or aquitards. Our analysis shows that, in theory, many non-degrading plumes may expand for significant time periods before dispersion alone would eventually stabilize the plume; however, matrix diffusion can significantly slow the rate and degree of this migration. For one 100-year travel time scenario, consideration of matrix diffusion results in a simulated PFOS plume length that is over 80% shorter than the plume length simulated without matrix diffusion. Although many non-degrading plumes may continue to slowly expand over time, matrix diffusion resulted in lower concentrations and smaller plume footprints. Modeling multiple hydrogeologic settings showed that the effect of matrix diffusion is more significant in transmissive zones containing multiple low-k lenses/layers than transmissive zones underlain and overlain by low-k aquitards. This study found that at sites with significant matrix diffusion, groundwater plumes will be shorter, will expand more slowly, and may be amenable to a physical, retention-based, Monitored Natural Attenuation (MNA) paradigm. In this case, a small "Plume Assimilative Capacity Zone" in front of the existing plume could be reserved for slow, de minimus, future expansion of a non-degrading plume. If potential receptors are protected in this scenario, then this approach is similar to allowances for expanding plumes under some existing environmental regulatory programs. Accounting for matrix diffusion may support new strategic approaches and alternative paradigms for remediation even for sites and conditions with "non-degrading" constituents such as PFAAs, metals/metalloids, and radionuclides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahla K Farhat
- GSI Environmental Inc, 2211 Norfolk St Suite 1000, Houston, TX, United States.
| | - Charles J Newell
- GSI Environmental Inc, 2211 Norfolk St Suite 1000, Houston, TX, United States.
| | - Sophia A Lee
- Naval Facilities Engineering and Expeditionary Warfare Center, 1000 23rd Avenue, Port Hueneme, CA 93043, United States.
| | - Brian B Looney
- Savannah River National Laboratory, Aiken, 773-42A, SC 29808, United States.
| | - Ronald W Falta
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, 336 Brackett Hall, Clemson University, SC 29634, United States.
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Kurwadkar S, Dane J, Kanel SR, Nadagouda MN, Cawdrey RW, Ambade B, Struckhoff GC, Wilkin R. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 809:151003. [PMID: 34695467 PMCID: PMC10184764 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 203] [Impact Index Per Article: 101.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a family of fluorinated organic compounds of anthropogenic origin. Due to their unique chemical properties, widespread production, environmental distribution, long-term persistence, bioaccumulative potential, and associated risks for human health, PFAS have been classified as persistent organic pollutants of significant concern. Scientific evidence from the last several decades suggests that their widespread occurrence in the environment correlates with adverse effects on human health and ecology. The presence of PFAS in the aquatic environment demonstrates a close link between the anthroposphere and the hydrological cycle, and concentrations of PFAS in surface and groundwater range in value along the ng L-1-μg L-1 scale. Here, we critically reviewed the research published in the last decade on the global occurrence and distribution of PFAS in the aquatic environment. Ours is the first paper to critically evaluate the occurrence of PFAS at the continental scale and the evolving global regulatory responses to manage and mitigate the adverse human health risks posed by PFAS. The review reports that PFAS are widespread despite being phased out-they have been detected in different continents irrespective of the level of industrial development. Their occurrence far from the potential sources suggests that long-range atmospheric transport is an important pathway of PFAS distribution. Recently, several studies have investigated the health impacts of PFAS exposure-they have been detected in biota, drinking water, food, air, and human serum. In response to the emerging information about PFAS toxicity, several countries have provided administrative guidelines for PFAS in water, including Canada, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Norway, Germany, and Australia. In the US, additional regulatory measures are under consideration. Further, many PFAS have now been listed as persistent organic pollutants. This comprehensive review provides crucial baseline information on the global occurrence, distribution, and regulatory framework of PFAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudarshan Kurwadkar
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, California State University, 800 N. State College Blvd., Fullerton, CA 92831, USA; Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 919 Kerr Research Drive, Ada, OK 74820, USA.
| | - Jason Dane
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, California State University, 800 N. State College Blvd., Fullerton, CA 92831, USA
| | - Sushil R Kanel
- Department of Chemistry, Wright State University, 3640 Colonel Glen Highway, Dayton, OH 45435, USA; Pegasus Technical Services, Inc., 46 E. Hollister Street, Cincinnati, OH 45219, USA
| | - Mallikarjuna N Nadagouda
- Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 26 West Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
| | - Ryan W Cawdrey
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, California State University, 800 N. State College Blvd., Fullerton, CA 92831, USA
| | - Balram Ambade
- Department of Chemistry, National Institute of Technology, Jamshedpur 831014, Jharkhand, India
| | - Garrett C Struckhoff
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, California State University, 800 N. State College Blvd., Fullerton, CA 92831, USA
| | - Richard Wilkin
- Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 919 Kerr Research Drive, Ada, OK 74820, USA.
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11
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McMahon PB, Tokranov AK, Bexfield LM, Lindsey BD, Johnson TD, Lombard MA, Watson E. Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Groundwater Used as a Source of Drinking Water in the Eastern United States. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:2279-2288. [PMID: 35113548 PMCID: PMC8970425 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c04795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2021] [Revised: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
In 2019, 254 samples were collected from five aquifer systems to evaluate perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) occurrence in groundwater used as a source of drinking water in the eastern United States. The samples were analyzed for 24 PFAS, major ions, nutrients, trace elements, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), pharmaceuticals, and tritium. Fourteen of the 24 PFAS were detected in groundwater, with 60 and 20% of public-supply and domestic wells, respectively, containing at least one PFAS detection. Concentrations of tritium, chloride, sulfate, DOC, and manganese + iron; percent urban land use within 500 m of the wells; and VOC and pharmaceutical detection frequencies were significantly higher in samples containing PFAS detections than in samples with no detections. Boosted regression tree models that consider 57 chemical and land-use variables show that tritium concentration, distance to the nearest fire-training area, percentage of urban land use, and DOC and VOC concentrations are the top five predictors of PFAS detections, consistent with the hydrologic position, geochemistry, and land use being important controls on PFAS occurrence in groundwater. Model results indicate that it may be possible to predict PFAS detections in groundwater using existing data sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter B. McMahon
- U.S.
Geological Survey, Bldg. 53, MS 415, Lakewood, Colorado, 80225, United States
| | - Andrea K. Tokranov
- U.S.
Geological Survey, 10 Bearfoot Rd., Northborough, Massachusetts 01532, United States
| | - Laura M. Bexfield
- U.S.
Geological Survey, 6700 Edith Blvd NE, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87113, United States
| | - Bruce D. Lindsey
- U.S.
Geological Survey, 215 Limekiln Road, New Cumberland, Pennsylvania 17070, United States
| | - Tyler D. Johnson
- U.S.
Geological Survey, 4165 Spruance Road, San Diego, California 92101, United States
| | - Melissa A. Lombard
- U.S. Geological
Survey, 331 Commerce Way, Pembroke, New Hampshire 03275, United States
| | - Elise Watson
- U.S.
Geological Survey, 4165 Spruance Road, San Diego, California 92101, United States
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12
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Liu C, Chu J, Cápiro NL, Fortner JD, Pennell KD. In-situ sequestration of perfluoroalkyl substances using polymer-stabilized ion exchange resin. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 422:126960. [PMID: 34449348 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Remediation of groundwater impacted by per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is challenging due to the strength of the carbon-fluorine bond and the need to achieve nanogram per liter drinking water targets. Previous studies have shown that ion exchange resins can serve as effective sorbents for the removal of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) in conventional water treatment systems. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the in situ delivery and PFAS sorption capacity of a polymer-stabilized ion exchange resin (S-IXR) consisting of Amberlite® IRA910 beads and Pluronic® F-127 in a quartz sand. At concentrations below 100 µg/L, individual and mixed PFAS adsorption on resin beads exhibited linear isotherms with no apparent competitive effects. However, at concentrations up to 100 mg/L, PFAS adsorption isotherms were non-linear and a mixture of six PFAS exhibited strong competitive effects. In columns packed with 40-50 mesh Ottawa sand, injection of the S-IXR suspension created a uniform sorptive zone that increased PFOA or PFOS retention by more than five orders-of-magnitude compared to untreated control columns. Multi-solute column studies revealed earlier breakthrough of shorter-chain length PFAS, which was consistent with the mixed PFAS adsorption data. These findings indicate that injectable ion exchange resins could provide an effective in situ remediation strategy for PFAS-impacted groundwater plumes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Liu
- School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, United States
| | - Jenna Chu
- School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, United States
| | - Natalie L Cápiro
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36830, United States
| | - John D Fortner
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, United States
| | - Kurt D Pennell
- School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, United States.
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13
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Tan X, Sawczyk M, Chang Y, Wang Y, Usman A, Fu C, Král P, Peng H, Zhang C, Whittaker AK. Revealing the Molecular-Level Interactions between Cationic Fluorinated Polymer Sorbents and the Major PFAS Pollutant PFOA. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c02435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Tan
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Michał Sawczyk
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, United States
| | - Yixin Chang
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Yiqing Wang
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Adil Usman
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Changkui Fu
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Petr Král
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, United States
- Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Hui Peng
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Cheng Zhang
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Andrew K. Whittaker
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
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14
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Speir SL, Shang L, Bolster D, Tank JL, Stoffel CJ, Wood DM, Peters BW, Wei N, Wang D. Solutions to Current Challenges in Widespread Monitoring of Groundwater Quality via Crowdsensing. GROUND WATER 2022; 60:15-24. [PMID: 34811746 DOI: 10.1111/gwat.13150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2021] [Revised: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Shannon L Speir
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556
| | - Lanyu Shang
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556
- Currently at School of Information Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, 61820
| | - Diogo Bolster
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556
- Environmental Change Initiative, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556
| | - Jennifer L Tank
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556
- Environmental Change Initiative, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556
| | - Casey J Stoffel
- Environmental Change Initiative, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556
| | - Danielle M Wood
- Environmental Change Initiative, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556
- Center for Civic Innovation, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556
| | - Brett W Peters
- Environmental Change Initiative, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556
| | - Na Wei
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556
- Environmental Change Initiative, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556
- Currently at University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, 61820
| | - Dong Wang
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556
- Currently at School of Information Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, 61820
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556
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15
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Nickerson A, Maizel AC, Olivares CI, Schaefer CE, Higgins CP. Simulating Impacts of Biosparging on Release and Transformation of Poly- and Perfluorinated Alkyl Substances from Aqueous Film-Forming Foam-Impacted Soil. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:15744-15753. [PMID: 34748313 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c03448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Poly- and perfluorinated alkyl substances (PFASs) frequently co-occur with fuel-derived contaminants because of the use of aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF). Biosparging is a common remediation technology that injects oxygen into the saturated zone to encourage aerobic biodegradation, thereby altering aquifer redox conditions and potentially facilitating the biotransformation of polyfluorinated substances. Between 136 and 280 pore volumes of nitrogen-sparged or oxygen-sparged artificial groundwater amended with toluene were pumped through four saturated, AFFF-impacted soil columns to assess impacts on PFAS release and transformation. Column effluents and soils were analyzed for PFASs by high-resolution mass spectrometry. Significantly higher concentrations of five PFASs eluted from O2-sparged columns compared to N2-sparged columns shortly after sparging was initiated. The mass fractions eluted of many zwitterionic, sulfonamide-based PFASs were higher in both sets of columns than unaltered, non-biostimulated columns. Mass balance calculations suggested the transformation of sulfonamide-based precursors to perfluorinated sulfonamides (i.e., perfluorohexanesulfonamide) in oxygen- and nitrogen-sparged columns: recoveries of perfluorinated sulfonamides were 158-235% for C3-C6 homologs but recoveries of several prominent sulfonamide-based zwitterions were low. For example, the recovery of n-carboxyethyldimethyl-ammoniopropyl perfluorohexanesulfonamide was 9-13%. These results suggest biosparging can enhance the transformation and release of PFASs in saturated soils, which has important implications for site characterization and remediation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Nickerson
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, 1500 Illinois St, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Andrew C Maizel
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, 1500 Illinois St, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Christopher I Olivares
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | | | - Christopher P Higgins
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, 1500 Illinois St, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
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16
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Podder A, Sadmani AHMA, Reinhart D, Chang NB, Goel R. Per and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) as a contaminant of emerging concern in surface water: A transboundary review of their occurrences and toxicity effects. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 419:126361. [PMID: 34157464 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 52.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 06/05/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Per and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been recognized as contaminants of emerging concerns by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) due to their environmental impact. Several advisory guidelines were proposed worldwide aimed at limiting their occurrences in the aquatic environments, especially for perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). This review paper aims to provide a holistic review in the emerging area of PFAS research by summarizing the spatiotemporal variations in PFAS concentrations in surface water systems globally, highlighting the possible trends of occurrences of PFAS, and presenting potential human health impacts as a result of PFAS exposure through surface water matrices. From the data analysis in this study, occurrences of PFOA and PFOS in many surface water matrices were observed to be several folds higher than the US EPA health advisory level of 70 ng/L for lifetime exposure from drinking water. Direct discharge and atmospheric deposition were identified as primary sources of PFAS in surface water and cryosphere, respectively. While global efforts focused on limiting usages of long-chain PFAS such as PFOS and PFOA, the practices of using short-chain PFAS such as perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) and perfluorobutane sulfonic acid (PFBS) and PFAS alternatives increased substantially. These compounds are also potentially associated with adverse impacts on human health, animals and biota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditi Podder
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, United States.
| | - A H M Anwar Sadmani
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, United States
| | - Debra Reinhart
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, United States
| | - Ni-Bin Chang
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, United States
| | - Ramesh Goel
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States
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17
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Bolan N, Sarkar B, Vithanage M, Singh G, Tsang DCW, Mukhopadhyay R, Ramadass K, Vinu A, Sun Y, Ramanayaka S, Hoang SA, Yan Y, Li Y, Rinklebe J, Li H, Kirkham MB. Distribution, behaviour, bioavailability and remediation of poly- and per-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in solid biowastes and biowaste-treated soil. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2021; 155:106600. [PMID: 33964642 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.106600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Aqueous film-forming foam, used in firefighting, and biowastes, including biosolids, animal and poultry manures, and composts, provide a major source of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) input to soil. Large amounts of biowastes are added to soil as a source of nutrients and carbon. They also are added as soil amendments to improve soil health and crop productivity. Plant uptake of PFAS through soil application of biowastes is a pathway for animal and human exposure to PFAS. The complexity of PFAS mixtures, and their chemical and thermal stability, make remediation of PFAS in both solid and aqueous matrices challenging. Remediation of PFAS in biowastes, as well as soils treated with these biowastes, can be achieved through preventing and decreasing the concentration of PFAS in biowaste sources (i.e., prevention through source control), mobilization of PFAS in contaminated soil and subsequent removal through leaching (i.e., soil washing) and plant uptake (i.e., phytoremediation), sorption of PFAS, thereby decreasing their mobility and bioavailability (i.e., immobilization), and complete removal through thermal and chemical oxidation (i.e., destruction). In this review, the distribution, bioavailability, and remediation of PFAS in soil receiving solid biowastes, which include biosolids, composts, and manure, are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanthi Bolan
- The Global Centre for Environmental Remediation, College of Engineering, Science and Environment, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia, The Cooperative Centre for High Performance Soils, Callaghan, NSW, Australia.
| | - Binoy Sarkar
- Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YQ, United Kingdom
| | - Meththika Vithanage
- Ecosphere Resilience Research Center, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda 10250, Sri Lanka
| | - Gurwinder Singh
- The Global Innovative Centre for Advanced Nanomaterials, College of Engineering, Science and Environment, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia; The Cooperative Centre for High Performance Soils, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| | - Daniel C W Tsang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Raj Mukhopadhyay
- Division of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal 132001, India
| | - Kavitha Ramadass
- The Global Innovative Centre for Advanced Nanomaterials, College of Engineering, Science and Environment, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia; The Cooperative Centre for High Performance Soils, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| | - Ajayan Vinu
- The Global Innovative Centre for Advanced Nanomaterials, College of Engineering, Science and Environment, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia; The Cooperative Centre for High Performance Soils, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| | - Yuqing Sun
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Sammani Ramanayaka
- Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YQ, United Kingdom; Ecosphere Resilience Research Center, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda 10250, Sri Lanka
| | - Son A Hoang
- The Global Centre for Environmental Remediation, College of Engineering, Science and Environment, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia, The Cooperative Centre for High Performance Soils, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| | - Yubo Yan
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huaiyin Normal University, Huai'an 223300, China
| | - Yang Li
- Key Laboratory of Water and Sediment Sciences of Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, PR China
| | - Jörg Rinklebe
- University of Wuppertal, Faculty of Architecture und Civil Engineering, Institute of Soil Engineering, Waste- and Water Science, Laboratory of Soil- and Groundwater-Management, Germany; Department of Environment, Energy and Geoinformatics, Sejong University, Seoul 05006, Korea.
| | - Hui Li
- Department of Environment, Energy and Geoinformatics, Sejong University, Seoul 05006, Korea
| | - M B Kirkham
- Department of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; Department of Agronomy, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
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18
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Frankel AJ. On Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances: Suggested Resources and Considerations for Groundwater Professionals. GROUND WATER 2021; 59:481-487. [PMID: 33811348 DOI: 10.1111/gwat.13101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, a synthetic class of chemicals comprising thousands of compounds, are receiving increased attention over their presence in the environment, their potential effects on human health, and evolving regulation. This article summarizes suggested resources and key considerations for groundwater professionals wishing to familiarize themselves with this class of compounds. Background information, current groundwater-related regulations, risk considerations, comparison to other groundwater contaminants, and mitigation options are discussed, and a broad selection of references is supplied as a resource.
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19
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Coffin S, Wyer H, Leapman JC. Addressing the environmental and health impacts of microplastics requires open collaboration between diverse sectors. PLoS Biol 2021; 19:e3000932. [PMID: 33784313 PMCID: PMC8009430 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Public concern over the environmental and public health impacts of the emerging contaminant class "microplastics" has recently prompted government agencies to consider mitigation efforts. Microplastics do not easily fit within traditional risk-based regulatory frameworks because their persistence and extreme diversity (of size, shape, and chemical properties associated with sorbed chemicals) result in high levels of uncertainty in hazard and exposure estimates. Due to these serious complexities, addressing microplastics' impacts requires open collaboration between scientists, regulators, and policymakers. Here we describe ongoing international mitigation efforts, with California as a case study, and draw lessons from a similarly diverse and environmentally persistent class of emerging contaminants (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) that is already disrupting traditional regulatory paradigms, discuss strategies to address challenges associated with developing health-protective regulations and policies related to microplastics, and suggest ways to maximize impacts of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Coffin
- Division of Drinking Water, State Water Resources Control Board, California Environmental Protection Agency, Sacramento, California, United States of America
| | - Holly Wyer
- Ocean Protection Council, California Environmental Protection Agency, Sacramento, California, United States of America
| | - J. C. Leapman
- School of Education, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
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