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Katzner TE, Pain DJ, McTee M, Brown L, Cuadros S, Pokras M, Slabe VA, Watson RT, Wiemeyer G, Bedrosian B, Hampton JO, Parish CN, Pay JM, Saito K, Schulz JH. Lead poisoning of raptors: state of the science and cross-discipline mitigation options for a global problem. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:1672-1699. [PMID: 38693847 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Lead poisoning is an important global conservation problem for many species of wildlife, especially raptors. Despite the increasing number of individual studies and regional reviews of lead poisoning of raptors, it has been over a decade since this information has been compiled into a comprehensive global review. Here, we summarize the state of knowledge of lead poisoning of raptors, we review developments in manufacturing of non-lead ammunition, the use of which can reduce the most pervasive source of lead these birds encounter, and we compile data on voluntary and regulatory mitigation options and their associated sociological context. We support our literature review with case studies of mitigation actions, largely provided by the conservation practitioners who study or manage these efforts. Our review illustrates the growing awareness and understanding of lead exposure of raptors, and it shows that the science underpinning this understanding has expanded considerably in recent years. We also show that the political and social appetite for managing lead ammunition appears to vary substantially across administrative regions, countries, and continents. Improved understanding of the drivers of this variation could support more effective mitigation of lead exposure of wildlife. This review also shows that mitigation strategies are likely to be most effective when they are outcome driven, consider behavioural theory, local cultures, and environmental conditions, effectively monitor participation, compliance, and levels of raptor exposure, and support both environmental and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd E Katzner
- U.S. Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, 230 North Collins Road, Boise, ID, 83702, USA
| | - Deborah J Pain
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, Norfolk, NR4 7TJ, UK
- Zoology Department, University of Cambridge, Downing St, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Michael McTee
- MPG Ranch, 19400 Lower Woodchuck Road, Florence, MT, 59833, USA
| | - Leland Brown
- Oregon Zoo, North American Non-lead Partnership, 4001 SW Canyon Rd, Portland, OR, 97221, USA
| | - Sandra Cuadros
- Hawk Mountain Sanctuary, 410 Summer Valley Rd, Orwigsburg, PA, 17961, USA
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia, 1177 Research Road, Kelowna, British Columbia, V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Mark Pokras
- Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, 200 Westboro Rd, North Grafton, MA, 01536, USA
| | - Vincent A Slabe
- Conservation Science Global, Bozeman, MT, USA
- The Peregrine Fund, 5668 West Flying Hawk Lane, Boise, ID, 83709, USA
| | - Richard T Watson
- The Peregrine Fund, 5668 West Flying Hawk Lane, Boise, ID, 83709, USA
| | - Guillermo Wiemeyer
- CONICET- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional de La Pampa, Calle 5 esq. 116 MO L6360, Gral. Pico, La Pampa, Argentina
| | | | - Jordan O Hampton
- Faculty of Science, University of Melbourne, Grattan Street, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
- Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia, 6150, Australia
| | | | - James M Pay
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Tasmania, Churchill Ave, Hobart, Tasmania, 7005, Australia
| | - Keisuke Saito
- Institute for Raptor Biomedicine Japan 2-2101 Hokuto, Kushiro, Hokkaido, 084-0922, Japan
| | - John H Schulz
- School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, 1111 Rollins St, Columbia, MO, 65203, USA
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Thomas VG, Kanstrup N. Promoting enforcement of non-lead hunting ammunition regulations and compliance in Europe and North America. AMBIO 2023; 52:1350-1358. [PMID: 37079207 PMCID: PMC10272061 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-023-01863-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The direct regulation of lead ammunition in North America and Europe has been mainly for hunting in wetlands. Little support among hunters and the ammunition makers exists for further regulation despite suitable lead substitutes and much education about the known risks to wildlife and human health from ingested lead. In the absence of personnel to detect use of lead ammunition and enforce regulations, hunter compliance is low. Identification of non-lead ammunition using existing electronic technology and an international protocol on the identification of non-lead rifle bullets is proposed to aid enforcement. An explicit definition of the chemical composition of lead substitutes is required in European Union legislation together with a more enforceable distinction between 'possession during hunting' and 'ownership' of lead ammunition. A more transdisciplinary regulatory approach to transitioning to non-lead ammunition is advised. It comprises widespread public health advisories, setting a maximum allowable lead level in commercial game meats in EU legislation, and public communication that emphasizes the benefits of non-lead ammunition use to all categories of wildlife and the public perception of hunting, whether in North America or Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vernon G. Thomas
- Department of Integrative Biology, College of Biological Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1 Canada
| | - Niels Kanstrup
- Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, C.F. Møllers Allé 8, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
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Patterson JR, DeVault TL, Beasley JC. Integrating terrestrial scavenging ecology into contemporary wildlife conservation and management. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e9122. [PMID: 35866022 PMCID: PMC9289120 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Scavenging plays a vital role in maintaining ecosystem health and contributing to ecological functions; however, research in this sub-discipline of ecology is underutilized in developing and implementing wildlife conservation and management strategies. We provide an examination of the literature and recommend priorities for research where improved understanding of scavenging dynamics can facilitate the development and refinement of applied wildlife conservation and management strategies. Due to the application of scavenging research broadly within ecology, scavenging studies should be implemented for informing management decisions. In particular, a more direct link should be established between scavenging dynamics and applied management programs related to informing pharmaceutical delivery and population control through bait uptake for scavenging species, prevention of unintentional poisoning of nontarget scavenging species, the epidemiological role that scavenging species play in disease dynamics, estimating wildlife mortalities, nutrient transfer facilitated by scavenging activity, and conservation of imperiled facultative scavenging species. This commentary is intended to provide information on the paucity of data in scavenging research and present recommendations for further studies that can inform decisions in wildlife conservation and management. Additionally, we provide a framework for decision-making when determining how to apply scavenging ecology research for management practices and policies. Due to the implications that scavenging species have on ecosystem health, and their overall global decline as a result of anthropic activities, it is imperative to advance studies in the field of scavenging ecology that can inform applied conservation and management programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica R. Patterson
- Savannah River Ecology Lab, Warnell School of Forestry and Natural ResourcesUniversity of GeorgiaAikenSouth CarolinaUSA
| | - Travis L. DeVault
- Savannah River Ecology Lab, Warnell School of Forestry and Natural ResourcesUniversity of GeorgiaAikenSouth CarolinaUSA
| | - James C. Beasley
- Savannah River Ecology Lab, Warnell School of Forestry and Natural ResourcesUniversity of GeorgiaAikenSouth CarolinaUSA
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