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Abstract
The nucleus is separated from the cytosol by the nuclear envelope, which is a double lipid bilayer composed of the outer nuclear membrane and the inner nuclear membrane. The intermediate filament proteins lamin A, lamin B, and lamin C form a network underlying the inner nuclear membrane. This proteinaceous network provides the nucleus with its strength, rigidity, and elasticity. Positioned within the inner nuclear membrane are more than 150 inner nuclear membrane proteins, many of which interact directly with lamins and require lamins for their inner nuclear membrane localization. Inner nuclear membrane proteins and the nuclear lamins define the nuclear lamina. These inner nuclear membrane proteins have tissue-specific expression and diverse functions including regulating cytoskeletal organization, nuclear architecture, cell cycle dynamics, and genomic organization. Loss or mutations in lamins and inner nuclear membrane proteins cause a wide spectrum of diseases. Here, I will review the functions of the well-studied nuclear lamina proteins and the diseases associated with loss or mutations in these proteins. © 2016 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 6:1655-1674, 2016.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M. Holaska
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of the Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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2
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Possidonio ACB, Soares CP, Fontenele M, Morris ER, Mouly V, Costa ML, Mermelstein C. Knockdown of Lmo7 inhibits chick myogenesis. FEBS Lett 2016; 590:317-29. [DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.12067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2015] [Revised: 12/20/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ana C. B. Possidonio
- Laboratório de Diferenciação Muscular e Citoesqueleto; Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas; Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro; RJ Brazil
| | - Carolina P. Soares
- Laboratório de Diferenciação Muscular e Citoesqueleto; Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas; Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro; RJ Brazil
| | - Marcio Fontenele
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular do Desenvolvimento; Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas; Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro; RJ Brazil
| | - Eduardo R. Morris
- Laboratório de Diferenciação Muscular e Citoesqueleto; Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas; Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro; RJ Brazil
| | - Vincent Mouly
- Sorbonne Universités; UPMC Univ Paris 06; INSERM UMRS974; CNRS FRE3617; Center for Research in Myology; Paris France
| | - Manoel L. Costa
- Laboratório de Diferenciação Muscular e Citoesqueleto; Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas; Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro; RJ Brazil
| | - Claudia Mermelstein
- Laboratório de Diferenciação Muscular e Citoesqueleto; Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas; Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro; RJ Brazil
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3
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Dedeic Z, Cetera M, Cohen TV, Holaska JM. Emerin inhibits Lmo7 binding to the Pax3 and MyoD promoters and expression of myoblast proliferation genes. J Cell Sci 2011; 124:1691-702. [DOI: 10.1242/jcs.080259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
X-linked Emery–Dreifuss muscular dystrophy (X-EDMD) is caused by mutations in the inner nuclear membrane protein emerin. Previous studies have shown that emerin binds to and inhibits the activity of LIM domain only 7 (Lmo7), a transcription factor that regulates the expression of genes implicated in X-EDMD. Here, we analyzed Lmo7 function in C2C12 myoblast differentiation and its regulation by emerin. We found that Lmo7 was required for proper myoblast differentiation. Lmo7-downregulated myoblasts exhibited reduced expression of Pax3, Pax7, Myf5 and MyoD, whereas overexpression of GFP–Lmo7 increased the expression of MyoD and Myf5. Upon myotube formation, Lmo7 shuttled from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, concomitant with reduced expression of MyoD, Pax3 and Myf5. Importantly, we show that Lmo7 bound the Pax3, MyoD and Myf5 promoters both in C2C12 myoblasts and in vitro. Because emerin inhibited Lmo7 activity, we tested whether emerin competed with the MyoD promoter for binding to Lmo7 or whether emerin sequestered promoter-bound Lmo7 to the nuclear periphery. Supporting the competition model, emerin binding to Lmo7 inhibited Lmo7 binding to and activation of the MyoD and Pax3 promoters. These findings support the hypothesis that the functional interaction between emerin and Lmo7 is crucial for temporally regulating the expression of key myogenic differentiation genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zinaida Dedeic
- University of Chicago Committee on Developmental Biology, 920 East 58th Street, Chicago IL 60637, USA
| | - Maureen Cetera
- University of Chicago Committee on Developmental Biology, 920 East 58th Street, Chicago IL 60637, USA
| | - Tatiana V. Cohen
- Children's National Medical Center, Center for Genetic Medicine, 111 Michigan Avenue, Washington DC 20010-2970, USA
| | - James M. Holaska
- University of Chicago Committee on Developmental Biology, 920 East 58th Street, Chicago IL 60637, USA
- Department of Medicine, Section of Cardiology, The University of Chicago, 947 East 58th Street, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
- Committee on Genetics, Genomics and Systems Biology, 5812 S. Ellis Street, Chicago IL 60637, USA
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4
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Hagarman JA, O'Brien TP. An essential gene mutagenesis screen across the highly conserved piebald deletion region of mouse chromosome 14. Genesis 2009; 47:392-403. [PMID: 19391113 DOI: 10.1002/dvg.20510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The piebald deletion complex is a set of overlapping chromosomal deficiencies on distal mouse chromosome 14. We surveyed the functional genetic content of the piebald deletion region in an essential gene mutagenesis screen of 952 genomes to recover seven lethal mutants. The ENU-induced mutations were mapped to define genetic intervals using the piebald deletion panel. Lethal mutations included loci required for establishment of the left-right embryonic axis and a loss-of-function allele of Phr1 resulting in respiratory distress at birth. A functional map of the piebald region integrates experimental genetic data from the deletion panel, mutagenesis screen, and the targeted disruption of specific genes. A comparison of several genomic intervals targeted in regional mutagenesis screens suggests that the piebald region is characterized by a low gene density and high essential gene density with a distinct genomic content and organization that supports complex regulatory interactions and promotes evolutionary stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A Hagarman
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
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5
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Ott EB, van den Akker NMS, Sakalis PA, Gittenberger-de Groot AC, Te Velthuis AJW, Bagowski CP. The lim domain only protein 7 is important in zebrafish heart development. Dev Dyn 2009; 237:3940-52. [PMID: 19035355 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.21807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The LIM domain only protein 7 (LMO7), a member of the PDZ and LIM domain-containing protein family is a candidate gene with possible roles in embryonic development and breast cancer progression. LMO7 has been linked to actin cytoskeleton organization through nectin/afadin and to cell-cell adhesion by means of E-cadherin/catenin. In addition, LMO7 has been shown to regulate transcription of the nuclear membrane protein Emerin and other muscle relevant genes. In this study, we used in situ hybridization to investigate LMO7 expression during embryonic development in three widely used vertebrate model species: the zebrafish, the chicken and the mouse. Our temporal and spatial gene expression analysis revealed both common and distinct patterns between these species. In mouse and chicken embryos we found expression in the outflow tract, the inflow tract, the pro-epicardial organ and the second heart field, structures highly important in the developing heart. Furthermore, gene knockdown experiments in zebrafish embryos resulted in severe defects in heart development with effects on the conduction system and on heart localization. In summary, we present here the first developmental study of LMO7. We reveal the temporal and spatial expression patterns of this important gene during mouse, chicken and fish development and our findings suggest essential functions for LMO7 during vertebrate heart development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth B Ott
- Institute of Biology, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Elnitski L, Riemer C, Schwartz S, Hardison R, Miller W. PipMaker: a World Wide Web server for genomic sequence alignments. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; Chapter 10:Unit 10.2. [PMID: 18428692 DOI: 10.1002/0471250953.bi1002s00] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
PipMaker is a World-Wide Web site used to compare two long genomic sequences and identify conserved segments between them. This unit describes the use of the PipMaker server and explains the resulting output files. PipMaker provides an efficient method of aligning genomic sequences and returns a compact, but easy-to-interpret form of output, the percent identity plot (pip). For each aligning segment between two sequences the pip shows both the position relative to the first sequence and the degree of similarity. Optional annotations on the pip provide additional information to assist in the interpretation of the alignment. The default parameters of the underlying blastz alignment program are tuned for human-mouse alignments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Elnitski
- The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
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Miller NH, Marosy B, Justice CM, Novak SM, Tang EY, Boyce P, Pettengil J, Doheny KF, Pugh EW, Wilson AF. Linkage analysis of genetic loci for kyphoscoliosis on chromosomes 5p13, 13q13.3, and 13q32. Am J Med Genet A 2006; 140:1059-68. [PMID: 16596674 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.31211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Kyphoscoliosis, a three-dimensional deformity of spinal growth, is characterized by a curvature in the coronal plane (scoliosis) in conjunction with thoracic kyphosis in excess of the normal range in the sagittal plane. We identified kyphoscoliosis within members of seven families (53 individuals) originally ascertained as part of a large collaborative study of familial idiopathic scoliosis. Model-independent linkage analysis of a genome-wide microsatellite screen identified areas suggestive of linkage on chromosomes 2q22, 5p13, 13q, and 17q11. Single-point and multipoint analyses of an additional 25 flanking microsatellite markers corroborated linkage to these regions, with areas on chromosomes 5p13, 13q13, and 13q32 being the most significant (P < 0.005). Analyses of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers in the candidate region on chromosome 5 narrowed the region to approximately 3.5 Mb (P < 0.05), with the most significant P values (P < 0.01) occurring in approximately a 1.3-Mb region. Candidate loci in this region include IRX1, IRX2, and IRX4 of the Iroquois Homeobox protein family. On chromosome 13, single-point and multipoint analyses resulted in multiple SNPs having P values < 0.05 within five candidate genes: Osteoblast-specific factor 2 or periostin, forkhead box O1A, A-kinase anchor protein 11, TBC1 domain family member 4, and glypican 5, thus supporting the potential relevance of this region in the pathogenesis of kyphoscoliosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy H Miller
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Institute of Genetic Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287, USA.
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Sakakura C, Hasegawa K, Miyagawa K, Nakashima S, Yoshikawa T, Kin S, Nakase Y, Yazumi S, Yamagishi H, Okanoue T, Chiba T, Hagiwara A. Possible involvement of RUNX3 silencing in the peritoneal metastases of gastric cancers. Clin Cancer Res 2005; 11:6479-88. [PMID: 16166423 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-05-0729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Our previous results suggested that a lack of RUNX3 function contributed to human gastric carcinogenesis, but the role of RUNX3 in progression and metastasis remains unclear. We examined RUNX3 expression in clinical samples of peritoneal metastases in gastric cancers. Changes in metastatic potential were assessed in animal experiments using stable RUNX3 transfectants of gastric cancer cells. Finally, global expression changes were analyzed using a cDNA microarray. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND RESULTS Significant down-regulation of RUNX3 through methylation on the promoter region was observed in primary tumors (75%) as well as in all clinical peritoneal metastases of gastric cancers (100%) compared with normal gastric mucosa. Stable transfection of RUNX3 inhibited cell proliferation slightly, and modest transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta)-induced antiproliferative and apoptotic effects were observed. Interestingly, it strongly inhibited peritoneal metastases of gastric cancers in animal model (P < 0.01). Furthermore, we did globally analyzed expression profiles of approximately 21,000 genes in parent cells and stable transfectant of RUNX3 using a cDNA microarray. Microarray analysis identified approximately 28 candidate genes under the possible downstream control of RUNX3, some of these genes were considered to be possibly involved in peritoneal metastases, which were related to signal transduction (vav3, TOLL-like receptor, MAPKK, MET, S1 00A1 1, and cathepsin E), apoptosis (caspase 9), immune responses (CD55 and TLR1O), and cell adhesion (sialyltransferase 1 and galectin 4). Some of the genes are involved in the TGF-beta signaling pathway. CONCLUSION These results indicate that silencing of RUNX3 affects expression of important genes involved in aspects of metastasis including cell adhesion, proliferation, apoptosis, and promoting the peritoneal metastasis of gastric cancer. Identification of such genes could suggest new therapeutic modalities and therapeutic targets.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Apoptosis/drug effects
- Base Sequence
- Blotting, Northern
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Proliferation/drug effects
- Core Binding Factor Alpha 3 Subunit
- DNA Methylation
- DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- Down-Regulation/genetics
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic/genetics
- Gene Silencing/physiology
- Humans
- Mice
- Mice, Nude
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Neoplasm Transplantation
- Neoplasms, Experimental/genetics
- Neoplasms, Experimental/pathology
- Oligonucleotide Array Sequence Analysis
- Peritoneal Neoplasms/genetics
- Peritoneal Neoplasms/secondary
- Promoter Regions, Genetic/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Sequence Homology, Nucleic Acid
- Stomach Neoplasms/genetics
- Stomach Neoplasms/pathology
- Transcription Factors/genetics
- Transfection
- Transforming Growth Factor beta/pharmacology
- Transforming Growth Factor beta1
- Transplantation, Heterologous
- Up-Regulation/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Chouhei Sakakura
- Surgery and Regenerative Medicine, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Japan.
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9
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Ooshio T, Irie K, Morimoto K, Fukuhara A, Imai T, Takai Y. Involvement of LMO7 in the Association of Two Cell-Cell Adhesion Molecules, Nectin and E-cadherin, through Afadin and α-Actinin in Epithelial Cells. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:31365-73. [PMID: 15140894 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m401957200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Nectins are Ca(2+)-independent immunoglobulin-like cell-cell adhesion molecules that are involved in formation of cadherin-based adherens junctions (AJs). The nectin-based cell-cell adhesion induces activation of Cdc42 and Rac small G proteins, which eventually enhances the formation of AJs through reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton. Although evidence has accumulated that nectins recruit cadherins to the nectin-based cell-cell adhesion sites through their cytoplasm-associated proteins, afadin and catenins, it is not fully understood how nectins are physically associated with cadherins. Here we identified a rat counterpart of the human LIM domain only 7 (LMO7) as an afadin- and alpha-actinin-binding protein. Rat LMO7 has two splice variants, LMO7a and LMO7b, consisting of 1,729 and 1,395 amino acids, respectively. LMO7 has calponin homology, PDZ, and LIM domains. Western blotting revealed that LMO7 was expressed ubiquitously in various rat tissues. Immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy revealed that LMO7 localized at cell-cell AJs, where afadin localized, in epithelial cells of rat gallbladder. In addition, LMO7 localized at the cytoplasmic faces of apical membranes in the same epithelial cells. We furthermore revealed that LMO7 bound alpha-actinin, an actin filament-bundling protein, which bound to alpha-catenin. Immunoprecipitation analysis revealed that LMO7 was associated with both the nectin-afadin and E-cadherin-catenin systems. LMO7 was assembled at the cell-cell adhesion sites after both the nectin-afadin and E-cadherin-catenin systems had been assembled. These results indicate that LMO7 is an afadin- and alpha-actinin-binding protein that connects the nectin-afadin and E-cadherin-catenin systems through alpha-actinin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takako Ooshio
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine/Faculty of Medicine, 2-2 Yamada-oka Suita, Osaka 565-0871, USA
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10
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Rijnkels M, Elnitski L, Miller W, Rosen JM. Multispecies comparative analysis of a mammalian-specific genomic domain encoding secretory proteins. Genomics 2004; 82:417-32. [PMID: 13679022 DOI: 10.1016/s0888-7543(03)00114-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The mammalian-specific casein gene cluster comprises 3 or 4 evolutionarily related genes and 1 physically linked gene with a functional association. To gain a better understanding of the mechanisms regulating the entire casein cluster at the genomic level we initiated a multispecies comparative sequence analysis. Despite the high level of divergence at the coding level, these studies have identified uncharacterized family members within two species and the presence at orthologous positions of previously uncharacterized genes. Also the previous suggestion that the histatin/statherin gene family, located in this region, was primate specific was ruled out. All 11 genes identified in this region appear to encode secretory proteins. Conservation of a number of noncoding regions was observed; one coincides with an element previously suggested to be important for beta-casein gene expression in human and cow. The conserved regions might have biological importance for the regulation of genes in this genomic "neighborhood."
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Affiliation(s)
- Monique Rijnkels
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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11
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Andersson BS, Murray D. Model studies of cyclophosphamide resistance in human myeloid leukemia. Cancer Treat Res 2003; 112:211-35. [PMID: 12487104 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-1173-1_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Borje S Andersson
- Department of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
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12
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Sakakura C, Hagiwara A, Nakanishi M, Shimomura K, Takagi T, Yasuoka R, Fujita Y, Abe T, Ichikawa Y, Takahashi S, Ishikawa T, Nishizuka I, Morita T, Shimada H, Okazaki Y, Hayashizaki Y, Yamagishi H. Differential gene expression profiles of gastric cancer cells established from primary tumour and malignant ascites. Br J Cancer 2002; 87:1153-61. [PMID: 12402156 PMCID: PMC2376186 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6600580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2002] [Revised: 08/14/2002] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Advanced gastric cancer is often accompanied by metastasis to the peritoneum, resulting in a high mortality rate. Mechanisms involved in gastric cancer metastasis have not been fully clarified because metastasis involves multiple steps and requires a combination of altered expressions of many different genes. Thus, independent analysis of any single gene would be insufficient to understand all of the aspects of gastric cancer peritoneal dissemination. In this study, we performed a global analysis of the differential gene expression of a gastric cancer cell line established from a primary main tumour (SNU-1) and of other cell lines established from the metastasis to the peritoneal cavity (SNU-5, SNU-16, SNU-620, KATO-III and GT3TKB). The application of a high-density cDNA microarray method made it possible to analyse the expression of approximately 21 168 genes. Our examinations of SNU-5, SNU-16, SNU-620, KATO-III and GT3TKB showed that 24 genes were up-regulated and 17 genes down-regulated besides expression sequence tags. The analysis revealed the following altered expression such as: (a) up-regulation of CD44 (cell adhesion), keratins 7, 8, and 14 (epitherial marker), aldehyde dehydrogenase (drug metabolism), CD9 and IP3 receptor type3 (signal transduction); (b) down-regulation of IL2 receptor gamma, IL4-Stat (immune response), p27 (cell cycle) and integrin beta4 (adhesion) in gastric cancer cells from malignant ascites. We then analysed eight gastric cancer cell lines with Northern blot and observed preferential up-regulation and down-regulation of these selected genes in cells prone to peritoneal dissemination. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction confirmed that several genes selected by DNA microarray were also overexpressed in clinical samples of malignant ascites. It is therefore considered that these genes may be related to the peritoneal dissemination of gastric cancers. The results of this global gene expression analysis of gastric cancer cells with peritoneal dissemination, promise to provide a new insight into the study of human gastric cancer peritoneal dissemination.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Sakakura
- Department of Digestive Surgery, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kamigyo-ku, Kawaramachi-dori, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan.
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13
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Peterson KA, King BL, Hagge-Greenberg A, Roix JJ, Bult CJ, O'Brien TP. Functional and comparative genomic analysis of the piebald deletion region of mouse chromosome 14. Genomics 2002; 80:172-84. [PMID: 12160731 DOI: 10.1006/geno.2002.6818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Several developmentally important genomic regions map within the piebald deletion complex on distal mouse chromosome 14. We have combined computational gene prediction and comparative sequence analysis to characterize an approximately 4.3-Mb segment of the piebald region to identify candidate genes for the phenotypes presented by homozygous deletion mice. As a result we have ordered 13 deletion breakpoints, integrated the sequence with markers from a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) physical map, and identified 16 known or predicted genes and >1500 conserved sequence elements (CSEs) across the region. The candidate genes identified include Phr1 (formerly Pam) and Spry2, which are mouse homologs of genes required for development in Drosophila melanogaster. Gene content, order, and position are highly conserved between mouse chromosome 14 and the orthologous region of human chromosome 13. Our studies combining computational gene prediction with genetic and comparative genomic analyses provide insight regarding the functional composition and organization of this defined chromosomal region.
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