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Owusu IA, Quaye O, Passalacqua KD, Wobus CE. Egress of non-enveloped enteric RNA viruses. J Gen Virol 2021; 102:001557. [PMID: 33560198 PMCID: PMC8515858 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
A long-standing paradigm in virology was that non-enveloped viruses induce cell lysis to release progeny virions. However, emerging evidence indicates that some non-enveloped viruses exit cells without inducing cell lysis, while others engage both lytic and non-lytic egress mechanisms. Enteric viruses are transmitted via the faecal-oral route and are important causes of a wide range of human infections, both gastrointestinal and extra-intestinal. Virus cellular egress, when fully understood, may be a relevant target for antiviral therapies, which could minimize the public health impact of these infections. In this review, we outline lytic and non-lytic cell egress mechanisms of non-enveloped enteric RNA viruses belonging to five families: Picornaviridae, Reoviridae, Caliciviridae, Astroviridae and Hepeviridae. We discuss factors that contribute to egress mechanisms and the relevance of these mechanisms to virion stability, infectivity and transmission. Since most data were obtained in traditional two-dimensional cell cultures, we will further attempt to place them into the context of polarized cultures and in vivo pathogenesis. Throughout the review, we highlight numerous knowledge gaps to stimulate future research into the egress mechanisms of these highly prevalent but largely understudied viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene A. Owusu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5620, USA
- West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Osbourne Quaye
- West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Karla D. Passalacqua
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5620, USA
- Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
| | - Christiane E. Wobus
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5620, USA
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Li Z, Yu J, Liu L, Wei Z, Ehrlich ES, Liu G, Li J, Liu X, Wang H, Yu XF, Zhang W. Coxsackievirus A16 infection induces neural cell and non-neural cell apoptosis in vitro. PLoS One 2014; 9:e111174. [PMID: 25350381 PMCID: PMC4211689 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0111174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Coxsackievirus A16 (CA16) is one of the main causative pathogens of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD). Viral replication typically results in host cell apoptosis. Although CA16 infection has been reported to induce apoptosis in the human rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cell line, it remains unclear whether CA16 induces apoptosis in diverse cell types, especially neural cells which have important clinical significance. In the current study, CA16 infection was found to induce similar apoptotic responses in both neural cells and non-neural cells in vitro, including nuclear fragmentation, DNA fragmentation and phosphatidylserine translocation. CA16 generally is not known to lead to serious neurological symptoms in vivo. In order to further clarify the correlation between clinical symptoms and cell apoptosis, two CA16 strains from patients with different clinical features were investigated. The results showed that both CA16 strains with or without neurological symptoms in infected patients led to neural and muscle cell apoptosis. Furthermore, mechanistic studies showed that CA16 infection induced apoptosis through the same mechanism in both neural and non-neural cells, namely via activation of both the mitochondrial (intrinsic) pathway-related caspase 9 protein and the Fas death receptor (extrinsic) pathway-related caspase 8 protein. Understanding the mechanisms by which CA16 infection induces apoptosis in both neural and non-neural cells will facilitate a better understanding of CA16 pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaolong Li
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
- College of Life Science, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Jinghua Yu
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Li Liu
- Department of Pediatric Pulmonology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Zhenhong Wei
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Elana S. Ehrlich
- Department of Biological Sciences, Towson University, Towson, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Guanchen Liu
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Jingliang Li
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xin Liu
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Hong Wang
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xiao-fang Yu
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Wenyan Zhang
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
- * E-mail:
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Agol VI. Cytopathic effects: virus-modulated manifestations of innate immunity? Trends Microbiol 2012; 20:570-6. [PMID: 23072900 PMCID: PMC7126625 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2012.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2012] [Revised: 09/17/2012] [Accepted: 09/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The capacity to injure infected cells is a widespread property of viruses. Usually, this cytopathic effect (CPE) is ascribed to viral hijacking of cellular resources to fulfill viral needs. However, evidence is accumulating that CPE is not necessarily directly coupled to viral reproduction but may largely be due to host defensive and viral antidefensive activities. A major part in this virus–cell interaction appears to be played by a putative host-encoded program with multiple competing branches, leading to necrotic, apoptotic, and, possibly, other types of cell suicide. Manifestations of this program are controlled and modulated by host, viral, and environmental factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vadim I Agol
- MP Chumakov Institute of Poliomyelitis and Viral Encephalitides, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow 142782, Russia.
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4
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Suppression of injuries caused by a lytic RNA virus (mengovirus) and their uncoupling from viral reproduction by mutual cell/virus disarmament. J Virol 2012; 86:5574-83. [PMID: 22438537 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.07214-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Viruses often elicit cell injury (cytopathic effect [CPE]), a major cause of viral diseases. CPE is usually considered to be a prerequisite for and/or consequence of efficient viral growth. Recently, we proposed that viral CPE may largely be due to host defensive and viral antidefensive activities. This study aimed to check the validity of this proposal by using as a model HeLa cells infected with mengovirus (MV). As we showed previously, infection of these cells with wild-type MV resulted in necrosis, whereas a mutant with incapacitated antidefensive ("security") viral leader (L) protein induced apoptosis. Here, we showed that several major morphological and biochemical signs of CPE (e.g., alterations in cellular and nuclear shape, plasma membrane, cytoskeleton, chromatin, and metabolic activity) in cells infected with L(-) mutants in the presence of an apoptosis inhibitor were strongly suppressed or delayed for long after completion of viral reproduction. These facts demonstrate that the efficient reproduction of a lytic virus may not directly require development of at least some pathological alterations normally accompanying infection. They also imply that L protein is involved in the control of many apparently unrelated functions. The results also suggest that the virus-activated program with competing necrotic and apoptotic branches is host encoded, with the choice between apoptosis and necrosis depending on a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic conditions. Implementation of this defensive suicidal program could be uncoupled from the viral reproduction. The possibility of such uncoupling has significant implications for the pathogenesis and treatment of viral diseases.
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Jiang H, Schwertz H, Schmid DI, Jones BB, Kriesel J, Martinez ML, Weyrich AS, Zimmerman GA, Kraiss LW. Different mechanisms preserve translation of programmed cell death 8 and JunB in virus-infected endothelial cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2012; 32:997-1004. [PMID: 22328780 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.112.245324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Translation initiation of eukaryotic mRNAs typically occurs by cap-dependent ribosome scanning mechanism. However, certain mRNAs are translated by ribosome assembly at internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs). Whether IRES-mediated translation occurs in stressed primary human endothelial cells (ECs) is unknown. METHODS AND RESULTS We performed microarray analysis of polyribosomal mRNA from ECs to identify IRES-containing mRNAs. Cap-dependent translation was disabled by poliovirus (PV) infection and confirmed by loss of polysome peaks, detection of eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF) 4G cleavage, and decreased protein synthesis. We found that 87.4% of mRNAs were dissociated from polysomes in virus-infected ECs. Twelve percent of mRNAs remained associated with polysomes, and 0.6% were enriched ≥2-fold in polysome fractions from infected ECs. Quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction confirmed the microarray findings for 31 selected mRNAs. We found that enriched polysome associations of programmed cell death 8 (PDCD8) and JunB mRNA resulted in increased protein expression in PV-infected ECs. The presence of IRESs in the 5' untranslated region of PDCD8 mRNA, but not of JunB mRNA, was confirmed by dicistronic analysis. CONCLUSIONS We show that microarray profiling of polyribosomal mRNA transcripts from PV-infected ECs successfully identifies mRNAs whose translation is preserved in the face of stress-induced, near complete cessation of cap-dependent initiation. Nevertheless, internal ribosome entry is not the only mechanism responsible for this privileged translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huimiao Jiang
- Division of Vascular Surgery, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, USA
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Bozym RA, Patel K, White C, Cheung KH, Bergelson JM, Morosky SA, Coyne CB. Calcium signals and calpain-dependent necrosis are essential for release of coxsackievirus B from polarized intestinal epithelial cells. Mol Biol Cell 2011; 22:3010-21. [PMID: 21737691 PMCID: PMC3164450 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e11-02-0094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2011] [Revised: 06/10/2011] [Accepted: 06/21/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Coxsackievirus B (CVB), a member of the enterovirus family, targets the polarized epithelial cells lining the intestinal tract early in infection. Although the polarized epithelium functions as a protective barrier, this barrier is likely exploited by CVB to promote viral entry and subsequent egress. Here we show that, in contrast to nonpolarized cells, CVB-infected polarized intestinal Caco-2 cells undergo nonapoptotic necrotic cell death triggered by inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor-dependent calcium release. We further show that CVB-induced cellular necrosis depends on the Ca(2+)-activated protease calpain-2 and that this protease is involved in CVB-induced disruption of the junctional complex and rearrangements of the actin cytoskeleton. Our study illustrates the cell signaling pathways hijacked by CVB, and perhaps other viral pathogens, to promote their replication and spread in polarized cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca A. Bozym
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219
| | - Kunal Patel
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Carl White
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL 60064
| | - King-Ho Cheung
- Department of Physiology, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Jeffrey M. Bergelson
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Stefanie A. Morosky
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219
| | - Carolyn B. Coyne
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219
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Coxsackievirus B3-induced cellular protrusions: structural characteristics and functional competence. J Virol 2011; 85:6714-24. [PMID: 21525342 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00247-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Virus-induced alterations in cell morphology play important roles in the viral life cycle. To examine the intracellular events of coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) infection, green monkey kidney (GMK) cells were either inoculated with the virus or transfected with the viral RNA. Various microscopic and flow cytometric approaches demonstrated the emergence of CVB3 capsid proteins at 8 h posttransfection, followed by morphological transformation of the cells. The morphological changes included formation of membranous protrusions containing viral capsids, together with microtubules and actin. Translocation of viral capsids into these protrusions was sensitive to cytochalasin D, suggesting the importance of actin in the process. Three-dimensional (3D) live-cell imaging demonstrated frequent contacts between cellular protrusions and adjacent cells. Markedly, in spite of an increase in the cellular viral protein content starting 8 h postinfection, no significant decrease in cell viability or increase in the amount of early apoptotic markers was observed by flow cytometry by 28 h postinfection. Comicroinjection of viral RNA and fluorescent dextran in the presence of neutralizing virus antibody suggested that these protrusions mediated the spread of infection from one cell to another prior to virus-induced cell lysis. Altogether, the CVB3-induced cellular protrusions could function as a hitherto-unknown nonlytic mechanism of cell-to-cell transmission exploited by enteroviruses.
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Enter the kill zone: initiation of death signaling during virus entry. Virology 2011; 411:316-24. [PMID: 21262519 PMCID: PMC7126532 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2010.12.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2010] [Revised: 12/14/2010] [Accepted: 12/22/2010] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Infection of host cells by a variety of viruses results in programmed cell death or apoptosis. In many cases, early events in virus replication that occur prior to synthesis of viral proteins and replication of viral genomes directly or indirectly activate signaling pathways that culminate in cell death. Using examples of viruses for which prodeath signaling is better defined, this review will describe how cell entry steps including virus attachment to receptors, virus uncoating in endosomes, and events that occur following membrane penetration lead to apoptosis. The relevance and physiologic consequences of early induction of prodeath signaling to viral pathogenesis also will be discussed.
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9
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Early phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway activation limits poliovirus-induced JNK-mediated cell death. J Virol 2008; 82:3796-802. [PMID: 18216097 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02020-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Poliovirus (PV)-induced apoptosis seems to play a major role in tissue injury in the central nervous system (CNS). We have previously shown that this process involves PV-induced Bax-dependent mitochondrial dysfunction mediated by early JNK activation in IMR5 neuroblastoma cells. We showed here that PV simultaneously activates the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt survival signaling pathway in these cells, limiting the extent of JNK activation and thereby cell death. JNK inhibition is associated with PI3K-dependent negative regulation of the apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1, which acts upstream from JNK in PV-infected IMR5 cells. In poliomyelitis, this survival pathway may limit the spread of PV-induced damage in the CNS.
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10
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Tsunoda I, Libbey JE, Fujinami RS. TGF-beta1 suppresses T cell infiltration and VP2 puff B mutation enhances apoptosis in acute polioencephalitis induced by Theiler's virus. J Neuroimmunol 2007; 190:80-9. [PMID: 17804084 PMCID: PMC2128758 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2007.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2007] [Revised: 07/31/2007] [Accepted: 07/31/2007] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
GDVII and DA strains of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) differ in VP2 puff B. One week after GDVII virus infection, SJL/J mice had large numbers of TUNEL+ apoptotic cells with a relative lack of T cell infiltration in the brain. DA viruses with mutation in puff B induced higher levels of apoptosis than wild-type DA virus, but levels of inflammation in brains were similar between DA and DA virus mutants. The difference in inflammation among TMEVs could be due to TGF-beta1 expression that was seen only in GDVII virus infection and negatively correlated with CD3+ T cell infiltration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ikuo Tsunoda
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, 30 North 1900 East, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, USA
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11
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Autret A, Martin-Latil S, Mousson L, Wirotius A, Petit F, Arnoult D, Colbère-Garapin F, Estaquier J, Blondel B. Poliovirus induces Bax-dependent cell death mediated by c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase. J Virol 2007; 81:7504-16. [PMID: 17494073 PMCID: PMC1933371 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02690-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Poliovirus (PV) is the causal agent of paralytic poliomyelitis, a disease that involves the destruction of motor neurons associated with PV replication. In PV-infected mice, motor neurons die through an apoptotic process. However, mechanisms by which PV induces cell death in neuronal cells remain unclear. Here, we demonstrate that PV infection of neuronal IMR5 cells induces cytochrome c release from mitochondria and loss of mitochondrial transmembrane potential, both of which are evidence of mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization. PV infection also activates Bax, a proapoptotic member of the Bcl-2 family; this activation involves its conformational change and its redistribution from the cytosol to mitochondria. Neutralization of Bax by vMIA protein expression prevents cytochrome c release, consistent with a contribution of PV-induced Bax activation to mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization. Interestingly, we also found that c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK) is activated soon after PV infection and that the PV-cell receptor interaction alone is sufficient to induce JNK activation. Moreover, the pharmacological inhibition of JNK by SP600125 inhibits Bax activation and cytochrome c release. This is, to our knowledge, the first demonstration of JNK-mediated Bax-dependent apoptosis in PV-infected cells. Our findings contribute to our understanding of poliomyelitis pathogenesis at the cellular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnaud Autret
- Biologie des Virus Entériques, Institut Pasteur, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
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Chen D, Texada DE, Duggan C, Deng Y, Redens TB, Langford MP. Caspase-3 and -7 mediate apoptosis of human Chang's conjunctival cells induced by enterovirus 70. Virology 2006; 347:307-22. [PMID: 16427675 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2005] [Revised: 10/20/2005] [Accepted: 12/02/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Enterovirus 70 (EV70) is the major etiological agent of acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis (AHC). EV70 m.o.i.- (multiplicity of infection) and time-dependently induced apoptosis in human Chang's conjunctival (HCC) cells. UV- or heat-inactivated EV70 did not induce apoptosis. EV70-induced apoptosis was inhibited by cycloheximide and methoxysuccinyl-Ala-Ala-Pro-Val-chloromethylketone (MPCMK), but not actinomycin D and guanidine.HCl (although guanidine.HCl inhibited the apoptosis induced by EV70 infection at 0.5 PFU/cell for 18 h). EV70 infection induced activation of caspase-3 and -7 and degradation of the constitutively activated caspase-6. EV70-induced apoptotic DNA ladders and activated caspase-3 and -7, correlated with virus release. Caspase inhibitor IX (Z-VD-FMK) inhibited EV70-induced apoptosis and virus release, but not intracellular viral production. The results suggest that infectious virus and the syntheses of viral proteins especially EV70 proteases, but not viral genome RNA, are required for caspase-3 and -7-mediated EV70-induced apoptosis, and that apoptosis through cell lysis promotes EV70 release from HCC cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dequan Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 1501 Kings Highway, Shreveport, LA 71130-3932, USA.
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14
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Abstract
Expression of the poliovirus receptor (PVR) on cells is a major host determinant of infection by poliovirus. Previously, the only immune cell type known to express PVR was the blood-derived monocyte, which is susceptible to infection at very low frequency. We demonstrate that professional antigen-presenting cells-macrophages and dendritic cells, generated upon differentiation of monocytes-retain expression of PVR and are highly susceptible to infection by type 1 Mahoney strain of poliovirus. Maximal cell-associated titers of virus are obtained within 6 to 8 h postinfection, and cell death and lysis occurs within 24 h postinfection. Similar kinetics are observed in cells infected with the Sabin 1 vaccine strain. Although protein synthesis and receptor-mediated endocytosis are inhibited upon poliovirus infection of these critical antigen-presenting cells, we demonstrate for the first time that functional presentation of antigen occurs in these infected cells via the HLA class II pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahnuma Wahid
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205, USA
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15
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Blondel B, Colbère-Garapin F, Couderc T, Wirotius A, Guivel-Benhassine F. Poliovirus, pathogenesis of poliomyelitis, and apoptosis. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2005; 289:25-56. [PMID: 15791950 DOI: 10.1007/3-540-27320-4_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Poliovirus (PV) is the causal agent of paralytic poliomyelitis, an acute disease of the central nervous system (CNS) resulting in flaccid paralysis. The development of new animal and cell models has allowed the key steps of the pathogenesis of poliomyelitis to be investigated at the molecular level. In particular, it has been shown that PV-induced apoptosis is an important component of the tissue injury in the CNS of infected mice, which leads to paralysis. In this review the molecular biology of PV and the pathogenesis of poliomyelitis are briefly described, and then several models of PV-induced apoptosis are considered; the role of the cellular receptor of PV, CD155, in the modulation of apoptosis is also addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Blondel
- Laboratoire des Virus Entérotropes et Stratégies Antivirales, Institut Pasteur, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France.
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16
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Romanova LI, Belov GA, Lidsky PV, Tolskaya EA, Kolesnikova MS, Evstafieva AG, Vartapetian AB, Egger D, Bienz K, Agol VI. Variability in apoptotic response to poliovirus infection. Virology 2005; 331:292-306. [PMID: 15629772 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2004.10.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2004] [Revised: 08/25/2004] [Accepted: 10/21/2004] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
In several cell types, poliovirus activates the apoptotic program, implementation of which is suppressed by viral antiapoptotic functions. In such cells, productive infection leads to a necrotic cytopathic effect (CPE), while abortive reproduction, associated with inadequate viral antiapoptotic functions, results in apoptosis. Here, we describe two other types of cell response to poliovirus infection. Murine L20B cells expressing human poliovirus receptor responded to the infection by both CPE and apoptosis concurrently. Interruption of productive infection decreased rather than increased the proportion of apoptotic cells. Productive infection was accompanied by the early efflux of cytochrome c from the mitochondria in a proportion of cells and by activation of DEVD-specific caspases. Inactivation of caspase-9 resulted in a marked, but incomplete, prevention of the apoptotic response of these cells to viral infection. Thus, the poliovirus-triggered apoptotic program in L20B cells was not completely suppressed by the viral antiapoptotic functions. In contrast, human rhabdomyosarcoma RD cells did not develop appreciable apoptosis during productive or abortive infection, exhibiting inefficient efflux of cytochrome c from mitochondria and no marked activation of DEVD-specific caspases. The cells were also refractory to several nonviral apoptosis inducers. Nevertheless, typical caspase-dependent signs of apoptosis in a proportion of RD cells were observed after cessation of viral reproduction. Such "late" apoptosis was also observed in productively infected HeLa cells. In addition, a tiny proportion of all studied cells were TUNEL positive even in the presence of a caspase inhibitor. Degradation of DNA in such cells appeared to be a postmortem phenomenon. Biological relevance of variable host responses to viral infection is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyudmila I Romanova
- M.P. Chumakov Institute of Poliomyelitis and Viral Encephalitides, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow Region 142782, Russia
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Bello-Morales R, Fedetz M, Alcina A, Tabarés E, López-Guerrero JA. High susceptibility of a human oligodendroglial cell line to herpes simplex type 1 infection. J Neurovirol 2005; 11:190-8. [PMID: 16036797 DOI: 10.1080/13550280590924179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
More than 20 infectious agents, ranging from retroviruses to mycobacteria, have been associated with multiple sclerosis onset or relapses in which oligodendrocytes, the myelin-forming cells of the central nervous system, are the initial target of the pathogenic status. In this work, the nature of the susceptibility of the human precursor oligodendroglial KG-1C cell line to herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) was investigated. Infection of KG-1C cells was characterized by a high level of virus production and a notable progression of the cytopathic effect. After infection, there was a significant shut-off of host mRNA translation, which was correlated with evident synthesis of viral proteins. An examination by electron microscopy of the infected cells revealed the presence of large clusters of mitochondria located in the proximity of intracellular HSV-1 particle groups. In addition, transmission electron microscopy and nuclear fluorescence analysis showed neither signs of chromatin condensation nor of apoptotic bodies. Furthermore, procaspase-3 remained uncleaved, suggesting that apoptosis does not take place, at least in this system. Finally, expression and localization of MAL2, a subpopulation of detergent-insoluble lipid raft protein, was studied. Detection of MAL2 significantly increased after infection and it was colocalized with HSV-1 proteins. From these findings the authors conclude that human oligodendrocyte-like cells are highly susceptible to HSV-1 infection. The implications of this for central nervous system viral infection are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Bello-Morales
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
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Yazici Z, Baskin Y, Baskin H, Gecer O, Bahar IH, Ozkul A. Study of programmed cell death in bovine herpesvirus 1 infected MDBK cells and the possible role of nitric oxide in this process. Acta Vet Hung 2004; 52:287-97. [PMID: 15379444 DOI: 10.1556/avet.52.2004.3.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) is the aetiological agent of many disease types and may predispose infected animals, possibly through immunosuppression, to secondary bacterial infections. Immunosuppression may directly be associated with the induction of programmed cell death (PCD) in some virus-infected cells. Nitric oxide (NO) has an important mediating role against fungal, bacterial, protozoal, viral pathogens and tumours. BHV-1 induced apoptosis between 0.5-3 h postinfection (PI) in MDBK cells; however, between 3 and 6 h PI the PCD response was found to be decreased. It was interesting to see that BHV-I inhibited staurosporin-induced PCD after 1 h. These results showed similarities with those obtained from herpes simplex type I infections in human epithelial cells. PCD response decreased 1 h following caspase-3 inhibitor applications, whereas NO response increased 3 h following infection in the presence of caspase-8 and -9 inhibitory peptides. In conclusion, BHV-1 inhibited the staurosporin-induced apoptotic response and also the NO response. We propose that this inhibition is caspase-3 dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Yazici
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ondokuz Mayis University, Kurupelit, Samsun, Turkey
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19
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Calandria C, Irurzun A, Barco A, Carrasco L. Individual expression of poliovirus 2Apro and 3Cpro induces activation of caspase-3 and PARP cleavage in HeLa cells. Virus Res 2004; 104:39-49. [PMID: 15177891 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2004.02.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2003] [Revised: 02/27/2004] [Accepted: 02/27/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The expression of individual viral genes enables the study of their effects on cellular functions. Our group previously generated stable HeLa cell lines that efficiently express poliovirus proteases 2A (clone 2A7d) and 3C (clone 3C7) under the control of tetracycline [Virology 266 (2000a) 352; J. Virol. 74 (2000b) 2383]. Upon induction of these proteases, the cells undergo drastic morphological alterations and eventually die. The present paper characterizes, in detail, the cellular and molecular events that lead to cell death in these lines. Several signs of apoptosis were observed in both 2A7d- and 3C7-induced cells, such as nuclear fragmentation, DNA breakdown (as determined by TUNEL), and phosphatidylserine translocation. Protease 2A induces the cleavage of poly-ADP-ribose-polymerase (PARP). This is blocked by the caspase-3 inhibitor DEVD in both 2A7d-On and 3C7-On cells suggesting that this enzyme might account for PARP cleavage in both cell lines. The results indicate that both poliovirus proteases induce apoptosis by mechanisms involving caspase activation, although the kinetics of apoptosis differs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Calandria
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
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20
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Guix S, Bosch A, Ribes E, Dora Martínez L, Pintó RM. Apoptosis in astrovirus-infected CaCo-2 cells. Virology 2004; 319:249-61. [PMID: 14980485 PMCID: PMC7127648 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2003.10.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2003] [Revised: 10/20/2003] [Accepted: 10/23/2003] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Cell death processes during human astrovirus replication in CaCo-2 cells and their underlying mechanisms were investigated. Morphological and biochemical alterations typical of apoptosis were analyzed in infected cells using a combination of techniques, including DAPI staining, the sub-G0/G1 technique and the TUNEL assay. The onset of apoptosis was directly proportional to the virus multiplicity of infection. Transient expression experiments showed a direct link between astrovirus ORF1a encoded proteins and apoptosis induction. A computer analysis of the astrovirus genome revealed the presence of a death domain in the nonstructural protein p38 of unknown function, encoded in ORF1a. Apoptosis inhibition experiments suggested the involvement of caspase 8 in the apoptotic response, and led to a reduction in the infectivity of the virus progeny released to the supernatant. We conclude that apoptotic death of host cells seems necessary for efficient human astrovirus replication and particle maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana Guix
- Enteric Virus Group, Department of Microbiology, University of Barcelona, Spain
| | - Albert Bosch
- Enteric Virus Group, Department of Microbiology, University of Barcelona, Spain
- Corresponding author. Department of Microbiology, School of Biology, University of Barcelona, Avda Diagonal 645, 08028 Barcelona, Spain. Fax: +34-93-4034629.
| | - Enric Ribes
- Enteric Virus Group, Department of Cell Biology, University of Barcelona, Spain
| | - L. Dora Martínez
- Enteric Virus Group, Department of Microbiology, University of Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rosa M. Pintó
- Enteric Virus Group, Department of Microbiology, University of Barcelona, Spain
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21
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Liu J, Wei T, Kwang J. Avian encephalomyelitis virus nonstructural protein 2C induces apoptosis by activating cytochrome c /caspase-9 pathway. Virology 2004; 318:169-82. [PMID: 14972545 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2003.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2003] [Revised: 09/10/2003] [Accepted: 09/10/2003] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The nonstructural protein 2C is highly conserved among picornaviruses and plays an important role in the assembly of mature virions, membrane association, and viral RNA synthesis. The investigation of other potential functions of nonstructural protein 2C from avian encephalomyelitis virus (AEV) resulted in identifying for the first time that the protein 2C is involved in apoptosis. Expression of the protein 2C on chick embryo brain (CEB) and Cos-7 cells produced TUNEL-positive cells characterized by a cleavage of cellular DNA and the formation of membrane-enclosed apoptotic bodies. Analysis of the protein 2C showed that the N-terminal domain containing 35 amino acid (aa) residues (between 46 and 80 aa) is associated with apoptotic function. Transfection of the deletion mutant lacking this 35 aa's into CEB and Cos-7 cells failed to induce apoptosis. Furthermore, the protein 2C induced apoptosis in the transfected CEB and Cos-7 cells through activation of caspase-9 rather than caspase-8 followed by activation of caspase-3 pathway. Analysis of the Western blots of caspase-3 and caspase-9 showed the characteristics of active caspase-3 and -9 in the 2C-transfected CEB and Cos-7 cells as seen in the AEV-infected CEB cells while they were in the form of procaspase-3 and procaspase-9 in the 2C mutant-transfected cells. To further elucidate the mechanism of the 2C-induced apoptosis, the 2C-transfected CEB and Cos-7 cells were fractionated into mitochondria and cytosol and subjected for Western blotting, located cytochrome c in the mitochondria as well as the cytosol fractions, while it was only sequestered in the mitochondrial fraction in the mutant 2C-transfected cells. The protein 2C was located in the mitochondria and cytosol of the transfected/infected CEB and transfected Cos-7 cells, but the mutant lost its ability to localize to the mitochondria. Altogether, the results demonstrate that the protein 2C localized to the mitochondria of the transfected cells triggered the efflux of cytochrome c into the cytosol in turn activating the upstream caspase-9 and then the downstream caspase-3, thus leading to apoptosis in the cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jue Liu
- Animal Health Biotechnology Unit, Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory, The National University of Singapore, 117604 Singapore
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22
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Blondel B, Couderc T, Simonin Y, Gosselin AS, Guivel-Benhassine F. Poliovirus and Apoptosis. VIRUSES AND APOPTOSIS 2004; 36:151-69. [PMID: 15171611 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-74264-7_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- B Blondel
- Unité de Neurovirologie et Régénération du Système Nerveux, Institut Pasteur, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
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23
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Sosnovtsev SV, Prikhod'ko EA, Belliot G, Cohen JI, Green KY. Feline calicivirus replication induces apoptosis in cultured cells. Virus Res 2003; 94:1-10. [PMID: 12837551 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-1702(03)00115-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Infection of Crandell-Rees feline kidney (CRFK) cells by feline calicivirus (FCV) causes rapid cytopathic effects followed by cell death. In this study, we observed that FCV replication in cells results in the induction of changes characteristic of apoptosis, including translocation of phosphatidyl serine to the cell outer membrane, chromatin condensation, and oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation. FCV infection was associated with increases in the activities of caspase-3, -8, and -9, with the level of activation of caspase-3 higher than those of caspases-8 and -9. Caspase activation in CRFK cells was not observed when cells were inoculated with UV-inactivated FCV or when cycloheximide was present during virus infection, indicating that FCV replication and de novo synthesis of virus proteins are critical for induction of apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanislav V Sosnovtsev
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 50 South Drive MSC8007, Building 50, Room 6316, Bethesda, MD 20892-8007, USA.
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24
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Yuan JP, Zhao W, Wang HT, Wu KY, Li T, Guo XK, Tong SQ. Coxsackievirus B3-induced apoptosis and caspase-3. Cell Res 2003; 13:203-9. [PMID: 12862321 DOI: 10.1038/sj.cr.7290165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell death can be classified into two categories: apoptosis and necrosis. Apoptotic pathway can be either caspase-dependent or caspase-independent. Caspase-independent cytopathic effect (CPE) has been described. In order to evaluate the pattern of HeLa cell death induced by Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) and whether apoptosis involves caspase activation, we co-cultivated HeLa cells with CVB3 and detected the cytopathic changes, the alteration of mRNA and protein expression of caspase-3 gene plus caspase-3 activity, as well as analyzing DNA fragmentation before and after caspase-3 activity inhibition. According to the results, we propose that CVB3 may induce apoptosis and necrosis in HeLa cells, the latter appearing much earlier. Caspase-3 is activated at the levels of both transcription and translation, and procaspase-3 is proteolytically cleaved, thus leading to the continuous increasing of both caspase-3 precursor protein and its subunit. However, besides CPE, apoptosis induced by CVB3 is not a direct consequence of the activation of caspase-3, or caspase-3 is not the only effector molecule in apoptotic cell death, for caspase-3 inhibitor can not decrease DNA fragmentation. Some other biochemical mechanisms may participate in the process, whose role weakens the effect of inhibiting caspase-3 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Ping Yuan
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Shanghai Second Medical University, Shanghai 200025, China
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25
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Chinchar VG, Bryan L, Wang J, Long S, Chinchar GD. Induction of apoptosis in frog virus 3-infected cells. Virology 2003; 306:303-12. [PMID: 12642103 DOI: 10.1016/s0042-6822(02)00039-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The ability of frog virus 3 (FV3), the type species of the family Iridoviridae, to induce apoptosis was examined by monitoring DNA cleavage, chromatin condensation, and cell-surface expression of phosphotidylserine (PS) in fathead minnow (FHM) and baby hamster kidney (BHK) cells. In productively infected FHM cells, DNA fragmentation was first noted at 6-7 h postinfection and was clearly seen by 17 h postinfection, while chromatin condensation was detected at 8.5 h postinfection. As with some other viruses, FV3-induced apoptosis did not require de novo viral gene expression as both heat-inactivated and UV-inactivated virus readily triggered DNA fragmentation in FHM cells. Moreover, FV3-induced apoptosis was blocked in FHM cells by the pan-caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK, suggesting that virus infection triggers programmed cell death through activation of the caspase cascade. FV3 infection also triggered apoptosis in BHK cells as monitored by TUNEL and annexin V binding assays. To determine whether FV3, similar to other large DNA viruses, encoded proteins that block or delay apoptosis, mock- and FV3-infected FHM cells were osmotically shocked and assayed for DNA fragmentation 3 hours later. DNA fragmentation was clearly seen whether or not shocked cells were previously infected with FV3, indicating that infection with FV3 did not block apoptosis induced by osmotic shock in FHM cells. The above results demonstrate that iridoviruses triggered apoptosis and that the induction of programmed cell death did not require viral gene expression. However, it remains to be determined if virion attachment to target cells is sufficient to induce cell death, or if apoptosis is triggered directly or indirectly by one or more virion-associated proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- V G Chinchar
- Department of Microbiology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS 39216, USA.
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26
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Belov GA, Romanova LI, Tolskaya EA, Kolesnikova MS, Lazebnik YA, Agol VI. The major apoptotic pathway activated and suppressed by poliovirus. J Virol 2003; 77:45-56. [PMID: 12477809 PMCID: PMC140567 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.1.45-56.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells respond to poliovirus infection by switching on the apoptotic program, implementation of which is usually suppressed by viral antiapoptotic functions. We show here that poliovirus infection of HeLa cells or derivatives of MCF-7 cells was accompanied by the efflux of cytochrome c from mitochondria. This efflux occurred during both abortive infection (e.g., interrupted by guanidine-HCl and ending with apoptosis) and productive infection (leading to cytopathic effect). The former type of infection, but not the latter, was accompanied by truncation of the proapoptotic protein Bid. The virus-triggered cytochrome c efflux was suppressed by overexpression of Bcl-2. Both abortive and productive infections also resulted in a decreased level of procaspase-9, as revealed by Western blotting. In the former case, this decrease was accompanied by the accumulation of a protein with the electrophoretic mobility of active caspase-9. In contrast, in the productively infected cells, the latter protein was absent but caspase-9-related polypeptides with altered mobility could be detected. Both caspase-9 and caspase-3 were shown to be essential for the development of such hallmarks of virus-induced apoptosis as chromatin condensation, DNA degradation, and nuclear fragmentation. These and some other results suggest the following scenario. Poliovirus infection activates the apoptotic pathway, involving mitochondrial damage, cytochrome c efflux, and consecutive activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3. The apoptotic signal appears to be amplified by a loop which includes secondary processing of Bid. The implementation of the apoptotic program in productively infected cells may be suppressed, however, by the viral antiapoptotic functions, which act at a step(s) downstream of the cytochrome c efflux. The suppression appears to be caused, at least in part, by aberrant processing and degradation of procaspase-9.
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Affiliation(s)
- George A Belov
- M. P. Chumakov Institute of Poliomyelitis and Viral Encephalitides, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow Region 142782, Russia
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27
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Gosselin AS, Simonin Y, Guivel-Benhassine F, Rincheval V, Vayssière JL, Mignotte B, Colbère-Garapin F, Couderc T, Blondel B. Poliovirus-induced apoptosis is reduced in cells expressing a mutant CD155 selected during persistent poliovirus infection in neuroblastoma cells. J Virol 2003; 77:790-8. [PMID: 12477887 PMCID: PMC140570 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.1.790-798.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Poliovirus (PV) can establish persistent infections in human neuroblastoma IMR-32 cells. We previously showed that during persistent infection, specific mutations were selected in the first extracellular domain of the PV receptor (CD155) of these cells (N. Pavio, T. Couderc, S. Girard, J. Y. Sgro, B. Blondel, and F. Colbère-Garapin, Virology 274:331-342, 2000). These mutations included the Ala 67 --> Thr substitution, corresponding to a previously described allelic form of the PV receptor. The mutated CD155(Thr67) and the nonmutated IMR-32 CD155 (CD155(IMR)) were expressed independently in murine LM cells lacking the CD155 gene. Following infection of the cells with PV, we analyzed the death of cells expressing these two forms of CD155. Levels of DNA fragmentation, caspase activity, and cytochrome c release were lower in LM-CD155(Thr67) cells than in LM-CD155(IMR) cells. Thus, the level of apoptosis was lower in cells expressing mutated CD155 selected during persistent PV infection in IMR-32 than in cells expressing the wild-type receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Sophie Gosselin
- Unité de Neurovirologie et Régénération du Système Nerveux, Institut Pasteur, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
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28
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Couderc T, Guivel-Benhassine F, Calaora V, Gosselin AS, Blondel B. An ex vivo murine model to study poliovirus-induced apoptosis in nerve cells. J Gen Virol 2002; 83:1925-1930. [PMID: 12124456 DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-83-8-1925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Paralytic poliomyelitis results from destruction of motor neurons owing to poliovirus (PV) replication. Using a mouse model, we have previously shown that PV kills neurons of the central nervous system (CNS) as a result of apoptosis (Girard et al., Journal of Virology 73, 6066-6072, 1999). We report the development of mixed mouse primary nerve cell cultures from the cerebral cortex of neonatal mice transgenic for the human PV receptor. These cultures contained all three main cell types of the CNS, i.e. neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. All three cell types were susceptible to PV infection and virus replication in the cultures led to DNA fragmentation characteristic of apoptosis. PV-induced apoptosis was inhibited by the caspase inhibitor benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp(O-Me) fluoromethyl ketone (Z-VAD.FMK), indicating that this process involved caspases. Thus, these mixed mouse primary nerve cell cultures are a new in vitro model for studying the molecular mechanisms of PV-induced apoptosis in nerve cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thérèse Couderc
- Unité de Neurovirologie et Régénération du Système Nerveux, Institut Pasteur, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France1
| | - Florence Guivel-Benhassine
- Unité de Neurovirologie et Régénération du Système Nerveux, Institut Pasteur, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France1
| | - Viviane Calaora
- Unité de Neurovirologie et Régénération du Système Nerveux, Institut Pasteur, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France1
| | - Anne-Sophie Gosselin
- Unité de Neurovirologie et Régénération du Système Nerveux, Institut Pasteur, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France1
| | - Bruno Blondel
- Unité de Neurovirologie et Régénération du Système Nerveux, Institut Pasteur, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France1
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29
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Kuo RL, Kung SH, Hsu YY, Liu WT. Infection with enterovirus 71 or expression of its 2A protease induces apoptotic cell death. J Gen Virol 2002; 83:1367-1376. [PMID: 12029152 DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-83-6-1367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is the causative agent of human diseases with distinct severity, from mild hand-foot-and-mouth disease to severe neurological syndromes, such as encephalitis and meningitis. Infection of several different cell lines with EV71 causes extensive cytopathic effect, leading to destruction of the entire monolayer and the death of infected cells. In this study, cell death processes during EV71 infection and the underlying mechanisms of them were investigated. The hallmarks of apoptosis, nuclear condensation and fragmentation, were observed 24 h after infection. Apoptosis in infected cells was also confirmed by detectable cleavage of cellular DNA and degradation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase. Transient expression of EV71 2A protease (2A(pro)) alone resulted in the induction of apoptotic change. Infection of EV71 or expression of EV71 2A(pro) leads to cleavage of the eukaryotic initiation factor 4GI, a key factor for host protein synthesis. This study added one more example to the growing list of human viruses that induce apoptosis by a virus-encoded protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rei-Lin Kuo
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Life Science, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei 112, Taiwan, Republic of China1
| | - Szu-Hao Kung
- Faculty of Medical Technology and Institute of Biotechnology in Medicine, School of Medical Technology and Engineering, National Yang-Ming University, 155 Li-Nong St Sec. 2, Shih-Pai, Taipei 112, Taiwan, Republic of China2
| | - Yueh-Ying Hsu
- Faculty of Medical Technology and Institute of Biotechnology in Medicine, School of Medical Technology and Engineering, National Yang-Ming University, 155 Li-Nong St Sec. 2, Shih-Pai, Taipei 112, Taiwan, Republic of China2
| | - Wu-Tse Liu
- Division of Clinical Virology, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Veterans General Hospital-Taipei, Taipei 112, Taiwan, Republic of China3
- Faculty of Medical Technology and Institute of Biotechnology in Medicine, School of Medical Technology and Engineering, National Yang-Ming University, 155 Li-Nong St Sec. 2, Shih-Pai, Taipei 112, Taiwan, Republic of China2
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Life Science, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei 112, Taiwan, Republic of China1
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30
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Li ML, Hsu TA, Chen TC, Chang SC, Lee JC, Chen CC, Stollar V, Shih SR. The 3C protease activity of enterovirus 71 induces human neural cell apoptosis. Virology 2002; 293:386-95. [PMID: 11886259 DOI: 10.1006/viro.2001.1310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The human glioblastoma SF268 cell line was used to investigate the induction of apoptosis by the 3C protease of enterovirus 71 (EV71). Transient expression in these cells of the wild-type 3C protein encoded by EV71 induced morphological alterations typical of apoptosis, including generation of apoptotic bodies. Degradation of cellular DNA in nucleosomes was also observed. When two of the amino acids in the catalytic motif of 3C were changed by mutagenesis, the 3C protein not only lost its proteolytic activity, but also its ability to induce apoptosis in the SF268 cells. Twenty-four hours after 3C transfection, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase, a DNA repair enzyme, was cleaved, indicating that caspases were activated by the expression of EV71 3C. The 3C-induced apoptosis was blocked by the caspase inhibitors DEVD-fmk and VAD-fmk. Our findings suggest that the proteolytic activity of 3C triggers apoptosis in the SF268 cells through a mechanism involving caspase activation and that this apoptotic pathway may play an important role in the pathogenesis of EV71 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Ling Li
- School of Medical Technology, Chang Gung University, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan
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31
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Koyama AH, Irie H, Ueno F, Ogawa M, Nomoto A, Adachi A. Suppression of apoptotic and necrotic cell death by poliovirus. J Gen Virol 2001; 82:2965-2972. [PMID: 11714972 DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-82-12-2965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
To determine an antiapoptotic activity of poliovirus type 1 (PV-1), we examined the effect of PV-1 infection on apoptosis that was induced in HEp-2 cells by the treatment with 1 M sorbitol. The virus did not induce apoptosis in the infected cells and could suppress both the fragmentation of chromosomal DNA and morphological cell and cell nuclei changes in the sorbitol-treated cells, indicating that PV-1 induces an antiapoptotic state. Comparison of the kinetics showed that this ability of the virus appeared in the infected cells at the time of progeny virus formation (maturation step of virus multiplication). Simultaneously with this antiapoptotic activity, PV-1 infection also suppressed non-apoptotic cell death induced by sodium chloride. Electron microscopic observation revealed that the cells killed by the sodium chloride treatment had undergone liquefactive necrosis, indicating that PV-1 can inhibit both apoptosis and necrosis. In addition, PV-1 can grow in the apoptotic cells, although the virus yield was reduced to a quarter of the yield in normal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Hajime Koyama
- Department of Virology1 and Department of Ophthalmology3, School of Medicine, The University of Tokushima, Tokushima 770-8503, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Irie
- Department of Pathology, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Kaga, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo 173-8650, Japan2
| | - Fumiko Ueno
- Department of Virology1 and Department of Ophthalmology3, School of Medicine, The University of Tokushima, Tokushima 770-8503, Japan
| | - Motomi Ogawa
- Department of Virology1 and Department of Ophthalmology3, School of Medicine, The University of Tokushima, Tokushima 770-8503, Japan
| | - Akio Nomoto
- Department of Microbiology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyou-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan4
| | - Akio Adachi
- Department of Virology1 and Department of Ophthalmology3, School of Medicine, The University of Tokushima, Tokushima 770-8503, Japan
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32
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Neznanov N, Kondratova A, Chumakov KM, Angres B, Zhumabayeva B, Agol VI, Gudkov AV. Poliovirus protein 3A inhibits tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-induced apoptosis by eliminating the TNF receptor from the cell surface. J Virol 2001; 75:10409-20. [PMID: 11581409 PMCID: PMC114615 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.75.21.10409-10420.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Viral infections often trigger host defensive reactions by activating intrinsic (intracellular) and extrinsic (receptor-mediated) apoptotic pathways. Poliovirus is known to encode an antiapoptotic function(s) suppressing the intrinsic pathway. Here, the effect of poliovirus nonstructural proteins on cell sensitivity to tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-induced (i.e., receptor-mediated) apoptosis was studied. This sensitivity is dramatically enhanced by the viral proteinase 2A, due, most likely, to inhibition of cellular translation. On the other hand, cells expressing poliovirus noncapsid proteins 3A and 2B exhibit strong TNF resistance. Expression of 3A neutralizes the proapoptotic activity of 2A and results in a specific suppression of TNF signaling, including the lack of activation of NF-kappaB, due to elimination of the TNF receptor from the cell surface. In agreement with this, poliovirus infection results in a dramatic decrease in TNF receptor abundance on the surfaces of infected cells as early as 4 h postinfection. Poliovirus proteins that confer resistance to TNF interfere with endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi protein trafficking, and their effect on TNF signaling can be imitated by brefeldin A, suggesting that the mechanism of poliovirus-mediated resistance to TNF is a result of aberrant TNF receptor trafficking.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Neznanov
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA.
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Abstract
Although the association remains controversial, enteroviruses have been implicated in the aetiology of several chronic diseases in humans. Investigations in vitro lead to better understanding of virus-cell interactions, and improve our knowledge of the molecular factors that are involved in the establishment and maintenance of these infections. Recent findings suggest that the most important factor in the establishment of a persistent infection is receptor usage. Studies of the mechanisms that are at work in these in-vitro models of viral infection have shown that there is frequently a co-evolution of mutant cells with higher resistance to viral infection and of virus variants with increased virulence (i.e. variants with the ability to utilize other cell-surface molecules as receptors).
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Affiliation(s)
- G Frisk
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Uppsala University, Akademiska Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden.
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