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Dobi D, Loberto N, Bassi R, Pistocchi A, Lunghi G, Tamanini A, Aureli M. Cross-talk between CFTR and sphingolipids in cystic fibrosis. FEBS Open Bio 2023; 13:1601-1614. [PMID: 37315117 PMCID: PMC10476574 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.13660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is the most common inherited, life-limiting disorder in Caucasian populations. It is caused by mutations in the gene encoding the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), which lead to an impairment of protein expression and/or function. CFTR is a chloride/bicarbonate channel expressed at the apical surface of epithelial cells of different organs. Nowadays, more than 2100 CFTR genetic variants have been described, but not all of them cause CF. However, around 80-85% of the patients worldwide are characterized by the presence, at least in one allele, of the mutation F508del. CFTR mutations cause aberrant hydration and secretion of mucus in hollow organs. In the lungs, this condition favors bacterial colonization, allowing the development of chronic infections that lead to the onset of the CF lung disease, which is the main cause of death in patients. In recent years, evidence has reported that CFTR loss of function is responsible for alterations in a particular class of bioactive lipids, called sphingolipids (SL). SL are ubiquitously present in eukaryotic cells and are mainly asymmetrically located within the external leaflet of the plasma membrane, where they organize specific platforms capable of segregating a selected number of proteins. CFTR is associated with these platforms that are fundamental for its functioning. Considering the importance of SL in CFTR homeostasis, we attempt here to provide a critical overview of the literature to determine the role of these lipids in channel stability and activity, and whether their modulation in CF could be a target for new therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorina Dobi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational MedicineUniversity of MilanItaly
| | - Nicoletta Loberto
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational MedicineUniversity of MilanItaly
| | - Rosaria Bassi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational MedicineUniversity of MilanItaly
| | - Anna Pistocchi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational MedicineUniversity of MilanItaly
| | - Giulia Lunghi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational MedicineUniversity of MilanItaly
| | - Anna Tamanini
- Section of Clinical Biochemistry, Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and MovementUniversity of VeronaItaly
| | - Massimo Aureli
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational MedicineUniversity of MilanItaly
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2
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Mechanisms of pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells barrier dysfunction induced by LPS: The roles of ceramides and the Txnip/NLRP3 inflammasome. Microvasc Res 2023; 147:104491. [PMID: 36709858 DOI: 10.1016/j.mvr.2023.104491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Acute lung injury (ALI)/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) are characterized by pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (PMVECs) barrier dysfunction and proinflammatory cytokine influx into lung tissue, resulting in pulmonary oedema. Ceramide overproduction is an important mediator of pulmonary hyperinflammation and pulmonary oedema in Acute lung injury (ALI). Ceramides induce NLRP3 inflammasome activation are essential for the hyperinflammatory response. However, the roles and specific mechanisms of ceramide-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation, proinflammatory cytokine manufacturing and PMVECs barrier dysfunction in ALI are unclear. Herein, pretreatment with the acid sphingomyelinase (ASMase) inhibitor imipramine (but not a neutral sphingomyelinase (NSMase) inhibitor or de novo pathway inhibitor) significantly inhibited ceramide early production in rats with lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI; Furthermore, the Txnip/NLRP3 inflammasome activation, proinflammatory cytokine release, increased PMVECs permeability and lung injury were significantly decreased. Verapamil, a Txnip inhibitor, substantially inhibited Txnip/NLRP3 inflammasome activation, proinflammatory cytokine release, increased PMVECs permeability and lung injury in rats with C8-ceramide-induced ALI. In vitro, short hairpin RNA-mediated Txnip silencing significantly inhibited C8-ceramide-induced Txnip/NLRP3 inflammasome activation in NR8383 alveolar macrophages (AMs) and early secretion of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β (4-12 h) as well as IL-6 and TNF-α at subsequent times (later than 12 h). However, C8-ceramide significantly increased the early secretion (within 8 h) of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α in a co-culture model of NR8383 AMs and PMVECs, and Txnip silencing of NR8383 AMs inhibited the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and reduced cytoskeletal rearrangements, intercellular connection breakage and hyperpermeability in PMVECs. Overall, our results suggest that in LPS-induced ALI, ceramide-mediated Txnip/NLRP3 inflammasome activation in NR8383 AMs leads to early IL-1β release, subsequently inducing PMVECs injury and release of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α, ultimately leading to PMVECs barrier dysfunction and ALI.
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3
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Hatton SL, Pandey MK. Fat and Protein Combat Triggers Immunological Weapons of Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems to Launch Neuroinflammation in Parkinson's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:1089. [PMID: 35163013 PMCID: PMC8835271 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second-most common neurodegenerative disease in the world, affecting up to 10 million people. This disease mainly happens due to the loss of dopaminergic neurons accountable for memory and motor function. Partial glucocerebrosidase enzyme deficiency and the resultant excess accumulation of glycosphingolipids and alpha-synuclein (α-syn) aggregation have been linked to predominant risk factors that lead to neurodegeneration and memory and motor defects in PD, with known and unknown causes. An increasing body of evidence uncovers the role of several other lipids and their association with α-syn aggregation, which activates the innate and adaptive immune system and sparks brain inflammation in PD. Here, we review the emerging role of a number of lipids, i.e., triglyceride (TG), diglycerides (DG), glycerophosphoethanolamines (GPE), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), sphingolipids, gangliosides, glycerophospholipids (GPL), and cholesterols, and their connection with α-syn aggregation as well as the induction of innate and adaptive immune reactions that trigger neuroinflammation in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelby Loraine Hatton
- Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Division of Human Genetics, 3333 Burnet Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA;
| | - Manoj Kumar Pandey
- Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Division of Human Genetics, 3333 Burnet Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA;
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Human Genetics, College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, 3333 Burnet Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
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4
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Jiang J, Ouyang H, Zhou Q, Tang S, Fang P, Xie G, Yang J, Sun G. LPS induces pulmonary microvascular endothelial cell barrier dysfunction by upregulating ceramide production. Cell Signal 2022; 92:110250. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2022.110250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Revised: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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5
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Santos TCB, Saied EM, Arenz C, Fedorov A, Prieto M, Silva LC. The long chain base unsaturation has a stronger impact on 1-deoxy(methyl)-sphingolipids biophysical properties than the structure of its C1 functional group. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2021; 1863:183628. [PMID: 33915167 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2021.183628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
1-deoxy-sphingolipids, also known as atypical sphingolipids, are directly implicated in the development and progression of hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy type 1 and diabetes type 2. The mechanisms underlying their patho-physiological actions are yet to be elucidated. Accumulating evidence suggests that the biological actions of canonical sphingolipids are triggered by changes promoted on membrane organization and biophysical properties. However, little is known regarding the biophysical implications of atypical sphingolipids. In this study, we performed a comprehensive characterization of the effects of the naturally occurring 1-deoxy-dihydroceramide, 1-deoxy-ceramideΔ14Z and 1-deoxymethyl-ceramideΔ3E in the properties of a fluid membrane. In addition, to better define which structural features determine sphingolipid ability to form ordered domains, the synthetic 1-O-methyl-ceramideΔ4E and 1-deoxy-ceramideΔ4E were also studied. Our results show that natural and synthetic 1-deoxy(methyl)-sphingolipids fail to laterally segregate into ordered domains as efficiently as the canonical C16-ceramide. The impaired ability of atypical sphingolipids to form ordered domains was more dependent on the presence, position, and configuration of the sphingoid base double bond than on the structure of its C1 functional group, due to packing constraints introduced by an unsaturated backbone. Nonetheless, absence of a hydrogen bond donor and acceptor group at the C1 position strongly reduced the capacity of atypical sphingolipids to form gel domains. Altogether, the results showed that 1-deoxy(methyl)-sphingolipids induce unique changes on the biophysical properties of the membranes, suggesting that these alterations might, in part, trigger the patho-biological actions of these lipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania C B Santos
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Prof. Gama Pinto, Ed F, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal; iBB - Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Essa M Saied
- Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Institute for Chemistry, Brook Taylor Str. 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany; Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, The Ring Road km 4.5, Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Christoph Arenz
- Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Institute for Chemistry, Brook Taylor Str. 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Aleksander Fedorov
- iBB - Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Manuel Prieto
- iBB - Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Liana C Silva
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Prof. Gama Pinto, Ed F, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal.
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Chung HY, Claus RA. Keep Your Friends Close, but Your Enemies Closer: Role of Acid Sphingomyelinase During Infection and Host Response. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 7:616500. [PMID: 33553211 PMCID: PMC7859284 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2020.616500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Breakdown of the inert and constitutive membrane building block sphingomyelin to the highly active lipid mediator ceramide by extracellularly active acid sphingomyelinase is tightly regulated during stress response and opens the gate for invading pathogens, triggering the immune response, development of remote organ failure, and tissue repair following severe infection. How do one enzyme and one mediator manage all of these affairs? Under physiological conditions, the enzyme is located in the lysosomes and takes part in the noiseless metabolism of sphingolipids, but following stress the protein is secreted into circulation. When secreted, acid sphingomyelinase (ASM) is able to hydrolyze sphingomyelin present at the outer leaflet of membranes to ceramide. Its generation troubles the biophysical context of cellular membranes resulting in functional assembly and reorganization of proteins and receptors, also embedded in highly conserved response mechanisms. As a consequence of cellular signaling, not only induction of cell death but also proliferation, differentiation, and fibrogenesis are affected. Here, we discuss the current state of the art on both the impact and function of the enzyme during host response and damage control. Also, the potential role of lysosomotropic agents as functional inhibitors of this upstream alarming cascade is highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ha-Yeun Chung
- Section Translational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany.,Center for Sepsis Control and Care, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Ralf A Claus
- Department for Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
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7
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Nagarajan SR, Butler LM, Hoy AJ. The diversity and breadth of cancer cell fatty acid metabolism. Cancer Metab 2021; 9:2. [PMID: 33413672 PMCID: PMC7791669 DOI: 10.1186/s40170-020-00237-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor cellular metabolism exhibits distinguishing features that collectively enhance biomass synthesis while maintaining redox balance and cellular homeostasis. These attributes reflect the complex interactions between cell-intrinsic factors such as genomic-transcriptomic regulation and cell-extrinsic influences, including growth factor and nutrient availability. Alongside glucose and amino acid metabolism, fatty acid metabolism supports tumorigenesis and disease progression through a range of processes including membrane biosynthesis, energy storage and production, and generation of signaling intermediates. Here, we highlight the complexity of cellular fatty acid metabolism in cancer, the various inputs and outputs of the intracellular free fatty acid pool, and the numerous ways that these pathways influence disease behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilpa R Nagarajan
- Discipline of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, Charles Perkins Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, UK
| | - Lisa M Butler
- Adelaide Medical School and Freemasons Foundation Centre for Men's Health, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia.,South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Andrew J Hoy
- Discipline of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, Charles Perkins Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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8
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Ishay Y, Rotnemer-Golinkin D, Ilan Y. The role of the sphingosine axis in immune regulation: A dichotomy in the anti-inflammatory effects between sphingosine kinase 1 and sphingosine kinase 2-dependent pathways. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 2021; 35:20587384211053274. [PMID: 34789044 PMCID: PMC8645305 DOI: 10.1177/20587384211053274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Sphingosine kinase has been identified as playing a central role in the immune cascade, being a common mediator in the cellular response to a variety of signals. The different effects of sphingosine kinase 1 and 2 (SphK1 and SphK2, respectively) activity have not been completely characterized. Aim: To determine the different roles played by SphK1 and SphK2 in the regulation of immune-mediated disorders. Methods: Nine groups of mice were studied. Concanavalin A (ConA) injection was used to induce immune-mediated hepatitis. Mice were treated with SphK1 inhibitor (termed SphK-I) and SphK2 inhibitor (termed ABC294640), prior to ConA injection, and effects of treatment on liver enzymes, subsets of T lymphocytes, and serum levels of cytokines were observed. Results: While liver enzyme elevation was ameliorated by administration of SphK1 inhibitor, SphK2 inhibitor-treated mice did not show this tendency. A marked decrease in expression of CD25+ T-cells and Foxp+ T-cells was observed in mice treated with a high dose of SphK1 inhibitor. Alleviation of liver damage was associated with a statistically significant reduction of serum IFNγ levels in mice treated with SphK1 inhibitor and not in those treated with SphK2 inhibitor. Conclusions: Early administration of SphK1 inhibitor in a murine model of immune-mediated hepatitis alleviated liver damage and inflammation with a statistically significant reduction in IFN-γ levels. The data support a dichotomy in the anti-inflammatory effects of SphK1 and SphK2, and suggests that isoenzyme-directed therapies can improve the effect of targeting these pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuval Ishay
- Department of Medicine, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical
Center, Jerusalem Israel
| | | | - Yaron Ilan
- Department of Medicine, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical
Center, Jerusalem Israel
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9
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Ventura AE, Santos TCB, Marquês JT, de Almeida RFM, Silva LC. Biophysical Analysis of Lipid Domains by Fluorescence Microscopy. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2187:223-245. [PMID: 32770510 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0814-2_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/26/2023]
Abstract
The study of the structure and dynamics of membrane domains in vivo is a challenging task. However, major advances could be achieved through the application of microscopic and spectroscopic techniques coupled with the use of model membranes, where the relations between lipid composition and the type, amount and properties of the domains present can be quantitatively studied.This chapter provides protocols to study membrane organization and visualize membrane domains by fluorescence microscopy both in artificial membrane and living cell models of Gaucher Disease (GD ). We describe a bottom-up multiprobe methodology, which enables understanding how the specific lipid interactions established by glucosylceramide, the lipid that accumulates in GD , affect the biophysical properties of model and cell membranes, focusing on its ability to influence the formation, properties and organization of lipid raft domains. In this context, we address the preparation of (1) raft-mimicking giant unilamellar vesicles labeled with a combination of fluorophores that allow for the visualization and comprehensive characterization of those membrane domains and (2) human fibroblasts exhibiting GD phenotype to assess the biophysical properties of biological membrane in living cells using fluorescence microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana E Ventura
- Research Institute for medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- CQFM-IN and IBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Tânia C B Santos
- Research Institute for medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- CQFM-IN and IBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Joaquim T Marquês
- Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Centro de Química Estrutural, DQB, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Rodrigo F M de Almeida
- Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Centro de Química Estrutural, DQB, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Liana C Silva
- Research Institute for medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal.
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Bonfield TL. Membrane Lipids and CFTR: The Yin/Yang of Efficient Ceramide Metabolism. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020; 202:1074-1075. [PMID: 32687399 PMCID: PMC7560806 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.202006-2362ed] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
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11
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Loberto N, Mancini G, Bassi R, Carsana EV, Tamanini A, Pedemonte N, Dechecchi MC, Sonnino S, Aureli M. Sphingolipids and plasma membrane hydrolases in human primary bronchial cells during differentiation and their altered patterns in cystic fibrosis. Glycoconj J 2020; 37:623-633. [PMID: 32666337 PMCID: PMC7501107 DOI: 10.1007/s10719-020-09935-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Human primary bronchial epithelial cells differentiated in vitro represent a valuable tool to study lung diseases such as cystic fibrosis (CF), an inherited disorder caused by mutations in the gene coding for the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator. In CF, sphingolipids, a ubiquitous class of bioactive lipids mainly associated with the outer layer of the plasma membrane, seem to play a crucial role in the establishment of the severe lung complications. Nevertheless, no information on the involvement of sphingolipids and their metabolism in the differentiation of primary bronchial epithelial cells are available so far. Here we show that ceramide and globotriaosylceramide increased during cell differentiation, whereas glucosylceramide and gangliosides content decreased. In addition, we found that apical plasma membrane of differentiated bronchial cells is characterized by a higher content of sphingolipids in comparison to the other cell membranes and that activity of sphingolipids catabolic enzymes associated with this membrane results altered with respect to the total cell activities. In particular, the apical membrane of CF cells was characterized by high levels of ceramide and glucosylceramide, known to have proinflammatory activity. On this basis, our data further support the role of sphingolipids in the onset of CF lung pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicoletta Loberto
- Dip. Biotecnologie Mediche e Medicina Traslazionale, Università degli Studi di Milano, LITA, Via Fratelli Cervi 93, Segrate, Milano, 20090, Italy
| | - Giulia Mancini
- Dip. Biotecnologie Mediche e Medicina Traslazionale, Università degli Studi di Milano, LITA, Via Fratelli Cervi 93, Segrate, Milano, 20090, Italy
| | - Rosaria Bassi
- Dip. Biotecnologie Mediche e Medicina Traslazionale, Università degli Studi di Milano, LITA, Via Fratelli Cervi 93, Segrate, Milano, 20090, Italy
| | - Emma Veronica Carsana
- Dip. Biotecnologie Mediche e Medicina Traslazionale, Università degli Studi di Milano, LITA, Via Fratelli Cervi 93, Segrate, Milano, 20090, Italy
| | - Anna Tamanini
- Section of Molecular Pathology, Department of Pathology and Diagnostics, University Hospital of Verona, 37126, Verona, Italy
| | | | - Maria Cristina Dechecchi
- Section of Clinical Biochemistry, Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement, University of Verona, 37134, Verona, Italy
| | - Sandro Sonnino
- Dip. Biotecnologie Mediche e Medicina Traslazionale, Università degli Studi di Milano, LITA, Via Fratelli Cervi 93, Segrate, Milano, 20090, Italy
| | - Massimo Aureli
- Dip. Biotecnologie Mediche e Medicina Traslazionale, Università degli Studi di Milano, LITA, Via Fratelli Cervi 93, Segrate, Milano, 20090, Italy.
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