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Sundbakk LM, Gran JM, Wood ME, Handal M, Skurtveit S, Nordeng H. Association of Prenatal Exposure to Benzodiazepines and Z-Hypnotics With Risk of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Childhood. JAMA Netw Open 2022; 5:e2246889. [PMID: 36520439 PMCID: PMC9856385 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.46889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Evidence is limited regarding the safety of prenatal benzodiazepine and z-hypnotic exposure and its association with long-term neurodevelopment in childhood. OBJECTIVE To quantify the associations of the timing and number of intervals of prenatal exposure to benzodiazepines and/or z-hypnotics with the risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in childhood. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS This cohort study used data from the 1999 to 2008 population-based Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study, which are linked to the Medical Birth Registry of Norway, Norwegian Patient Registry, and Norwegian Prescription Database. Two populations of participants were created: a full sample and a mental health sample. The full sample included mothers and their live-born singletons, whereas the mental health sample was restricted to offspring of mothers who reported anxiety, depression, or sleeping problems during pregnancy or 6 months before pregnancy. Data were analyzed from September 2021 to February 2022. EXPOSURES Maternal self-report of benzodiazepine and/or z-hypnotic use during pregnancy was grouped into early pregnancy exposure and middle and/or late pregnancy exposure for analysis of the association with timing of exposure, and number of 4-week intervals of exposure was classified (single [1] vs multiple [≥2]) for analysis of the association with number of exposed intervals. MAIN OUTCOME AND MEASURES The outcome was ADHD, defined as time to ADHD diagnosis or filled prescription for ADHD medication. To control for confounding, inverse probability of treatment-weighted Cox proportional hazards regression models were used. Hazard ratios and 95% CIs were estimated. The weights were derived from propensity score modeling of the probability of benzodiazepine and/or z-hypnotic exposure as a function of potential confounders between the exposure and the outcome, including maternal symptoms of depression and anxiety. RESULTS The full sample comprised 82 201 pregnancies, and the mental health sample included 19 585 pregnancies. In total, 681 offspring (0.8%) in the full sample and 468 offspring (2.4%) in the mental health sample were prenatally exposed to benzodiazepines and/or z-hypnotics. After weighting, exposure in early (hazard ratio, 0.74; 95% CI, 0.39-1.94) and middle and/or late (hazard ratio, 0.76; 95% CI, 0.35-1.61) pregnancy was not associated with increased risk of childhood ADHD. There was no evidence of substantial association between the number of exposed intervals during pregnancy and childhood ADHD. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Results of this study suggest that there may be no increased risk of childhood ADHD associated with prenatal exposure to benzodiazepines and/or z-hypnotics, regardless of timing of exposure and number of exposed intervals. However, these findings should be interpreted with caution due to low study power.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lene Maria Sundbakk
- PharmacoEpidemiology and Drug Safety Research Group, Department of Pharmacy, and PharmaTox Strategic Initiative, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jon Michael Gran
- Oslo Centre for Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Department of Biostatistics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Mollie E. Wood
- PharmacoEpidemiology and Drug Safety Research Group, Department of Pharmacy, and PharmaTox Strategic Initiative, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill
| | - Marte Handal
- Department of Chronic Diseases, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Svetlana Skurtveit
- Department of Mental Disorders, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Hedvig Nordeng
- PharmacoEpidemiology and Drug Safety Research Group, Department of Pharmacy, and PharmaTox Strategic Initiative, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Child Health and Development, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
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Jensen AG, Knudsen SS, Bech BH. Prenatal exposure to benzodiazepines and the development of the offspring – a systematic review. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2022; 91:107078. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2022.107078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Neonatal administration of a subanaesthetic dose of JM-1232(-) in mice results in no behavioural deficits in adulthood. Sci Rep 2021; 11:12874. [PMID: 34145371 PMCID: PMC8213711 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-92344-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
In animal models, neonatal exposure of general anaesthetics significantly increases apoptosis in the brain, resulting in persistent behavioural deficits later in adulthood. Consequently, there is growing concern about the use of general anaesthetics in obstetric and paediatric practice. JM-1232(−) has been developed as a novel intravenous anaesthetic, but the effects of JM-1232(−) on the developing brain are not understood. Here we show that neonatal administration of JM-1232(−) does not lead to detectable behavioural deficits in adulthood, contrarily to other widely-used intravenous anaesthetics. At postnatal day 6 (P6), mice were injected intraperitoneally with a sedative-equivalent dose of JM-1232(−), propofol, or midazolam. Western blot analysis of forebrain extracts using cleaved poly-(adenosine diphosphate-ribose) polymerase antibody showed that JM-1232(−) is accompanied by slight but measurable apoptosis 6 h after administration, but it was relatively small compared to those of propofol and midazolam. Behavioural studies were performed in adulthood, long after the neonatal anaesthesia, to evaluate the long-term effects on cognitive, social, and affective functions. P6 administration to JM-1232(−) was not accompanied by detectable long-term behavioural deficits in adulthood. However, animals receiving propofol or midazolam had impaired social and/or cognitive functions. These data suggest that JM-1232(−) has prospects for use in obstetric and paediatric practice.
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Neonatal Clonazepam Administration Induced Long-Lasting Changes in GABA A and GABA B Receptors. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21093184. [PMID: 32366006 PMCID: PMC7246485 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21093184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Benzodiazepines (BZDs) are widely used in patients of all ages. Unlike adults, neonatal animals treated with BZDs exhibit a variety of behavioral deficits later in life; however, the mechanisms underlying these deficits are poorly understood. This study aims to examine whether administration of clonazepam (CZP; 1 mg/kg/day) in 7-11-day-old rats affects Gama aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic receptors in both the short and long terms. Using RT-PCR and quantitative autoradiography, we examined the expression of the selected GABAA receptor subunits (α1, α2, α4, γ2, and δ) and the GABAB B2 subunit, and GABAA, benzodiazepine, and GABAB receptor binding 48 h, 1 week, and 2 months after treatment discontinuation. Within one week after CZP cessation, the expression of the α2 subunit was upregulated, whereas that of the δ subunit was downregulated in both the hippocampus and cortex. In the hippocampus, the α4 subunit was downregulated after the 2-month interval. Changes in receptor binding were highly dependent on the receptor type, the interval after treatment cessation, and the brain structure. GABAA receptor binding was increased in almost all of the brain structures after the 48-h interval. BZD-binding was decreased in many brain structures involved in the neuronal networks associated with emotional behavior, anxiety, and cognitive functions after the 2-month interval. Binding of the GABAB receptors changed depending on the interval and brain structure. Overall, the described changes may affect both synaptic development and functioning and may potentially cause behavioral impairment.
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Sundbakk LM, Wood M, Gran JM, Nordeng H. Impact of prenatal exposure to benzodiazepines and z-hypnotics on behavioral problems at 5 years of age: A study from the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0217830. [PMID: 31170221 PMCID: PMC6553737 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0217830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Many women experience anxiety or sleep disorders during pregnancy and require pharmacological treatment with benzodiazepines (BZDs) or z-hypnotics. Limited information is currently available on how prenatal exposure to these medications affects behavioral problems in children over the long term. Therefore, from a public health perspective, this issue is highly important. The present study aimed to determine whether prenatal exposure to BZDs and z-hypnotics affected externalizing and internalizing behavior problems in children at age 5 years. This study was based on The Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study and The Medical Birth Registry of Norway. The final study population included data for 36 401 children, from questionnaires completed by the mothers throughout the 5-year follow up. Children’s behaviors were measured at age 5, based on parental responses to The Child Behavior Checklist. Children T-scores of 63 or above were considered to indicate clinically relevant behavior problems. We applied inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW) and log-binomial regression models to estimate risk ratios (RRs) and bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals (CIs) with censoring weights to account for loss during follow-up. Several sensitivity analyses were performed to assess the robustness of the main results. The final sample included 273 (0.75%) children that were exposed to BZDs and/or z-hypnotics during pregnancy. The main, IPTW and censoring weighted analyses showed that prenatal exposure to BZD and/or z-hypnotics increased the risks of internalizing behavioral problems (RR: 1.35, 95% CI: 0.73–2.49) and externalizing behavioral problems (RR: 1.51, 95% CI: 0.86–2.64). However, based on sensitivity analyses, we concluded that the risks of displaying externalizing and internalizing problems at 5 years of age did not significantly increase after prenatal exposure to BZDs and/or z-hypnotics. Instead, the sensitivity analyses suggested that residual confounding and selection bias might explain the increased risks observed in the main analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lene Maria Sundbakk
- PharmacoEpidemiology and Drug Safety Research Group, Department of Pharmacy, and PharmaTox Strategic Initiative, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- * E-mail:
| | - Mollie Wood
- PharmacoEpidemiology and Drug Safety Research Group, Department of Pharmacy, and PharmaTox Strategic Initiative, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States of America
| | - Jon Michael Gran
- Oslo Centre for Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Department of Biostatistics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Hedvig Nordeng
- PharmacoEpidemiology and Drug Safety Research Group, Department of Pharmacy, and PharmaTox Strategic Initiative, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Child Development and Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
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Kubová H, Bendová Z, Moravcová S, Pačesová D, Rocha LL, Mareš P. Neonatal Clonazepam Administration Induces Long-Lasting Changes in Glutamate Receptors. Front Mol Neurosci 2018; 11:382. [PMID: 30364265 PMCID: PMC6193113 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2018.00382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) pathways play an important role in neuronal circuitry formation during early postnatal development. Our previous studies revealed an increased risk for adverse neurodevelopmental consequences in animals exposed to benzodiazepines, which enhance GABA inhibition via GABAA receptors. We reported that administration of the benzodiazepine clonazepam (CZP) during postnatal days 7-11 resulted in permanent behavioral alterations. However, the mechanisms underlying these changes are unknown. We hypothesized that early CZP exposure modifies development of glutamatergic receptors and their composition due to the tight developmental link between GABAergic functions and maturation of glutamatergic signaling. These changes may alter excitatory synapses, as well as neuronal connectivity and function of the neural network. We used quantitative real-time PCR and quantitative autoradiography to examine changes in NMDA and AMPA receptor composition and binding in response to CZP (1 mg/kg/day) administration for five consecutive days, beginning on P7. Brains were collected 48 h, 1 week, or 60 days after treatment cessation, and mRNA subunit expression was assessed in the hippocampus and sensorimotor cortex. A separate group of animals was used to determine binding to NMDA in different brain regions. Patterns of CZP-induced alterations in subunit mRNA expression were dependent on brain structure, interval after CZP cessation, and receptor subunit type. In the hippocampus, upregulation of GluN1, GluN3, and GluR2 subunit mRNA was observed at the 48-h interval, and GluN2A and GluR1 mRNA expression levels were higher 1 week after CZP cessation compared to controls, while GluN2B was downregulated. CZP exposure increased GluN3 and GluR2 subunit mRNA expression levels in the sensorimotor cortex 48 h after treatment cessation. GluA3 was higher 1 week after the CZP exposure, and GluN2A and GluA4 mRNA were significantly upregulated 2 months later. Expression of other subunits was not significantly different from that of the controls. NMDA receptor binding increased 1 week after the end of exposure in most hippocampal and cortical areas, including the sensorimotor cortex at the 48-h interval. CZP exposure decreased NMDA receptor binding in most evaluated hippocampal and cortical areas 2 months after the end of administration. Overall, early CZP exposure likely results in long-term glutamatergic receptor modulation that may affect synaptic development and function, potentially causing behavioral impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hana Kubová
- Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czechia
| | - Zdenka Bendová
- Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czechia.,National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
| | - Simona Moravcová
- Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czechia.,National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
| | - Dominika Pačesová
- Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czechia.,National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
| | - Luisa Lilia Rocha
- Pharmacobiology Department, Center of Research and Advanced Studies, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Pavel Mareš
- Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czechia
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Brandlistuen RE, Ystrom E, Hernandez-Diaz S, Skurtveit S, Selmer R, Handal M, Nordeng H. Association of prenatal exposure to benzodiazepines and child internalizing problems: A sibling-controlled cohort study. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0181042. [PMID: 28746341 PMCID: PMC5528839 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0181042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Background During pregnancy, many women experience sleep problems and anxiety that require treatment. The long-term safety for the child of maternal benzodiazepine (BZD) and z-hypnotic use during pregnancy remains controversial. Method We conducted a cohort and a sibling control study using data from the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study. Data on use of BZD and z-hypnotics, internalizing and externalizing outcomes, and covariates were collected from mothers at gestational weeks 17 and 30 and when children were 0.5, 1.5, and 3 years of age. The total sample consisted of 71,996 children (19,297 siblings) at 1.5 years and 55,081 children (13,779 siblings) at 3 years. Short-term use was defined as use in one pregnancy period only. Long-term use was defined as use in two or more pregnancy periods. Linear full cohort random-effect and sibling-matched fixed-effect regression models were used to compare internalizing and externalizing behavior in children prenatally exposed compared to those unexposed in the full cohort of pregnancies accounting for family clusters, as well as within sibling clusters comparing pregnancies with discordant exposures. Propensity score (PS) adjustment included variables on indication for use (sleep problems, symptoms of anxiety and depression) and other potential confounding factors. Results Long-term prenatal exposure to BZD or z-hypnotics was associated with increased internalizing behavior in crude cohort analyses and at age 1.5 years after PS adjustment in sibling-matched fixed-effect models [β 0.60, 95% confidence interval 0.17–0.95]. Analyses on specific drug groups showed that prenatal exposure to BZD-anxiolytics was associated with increased internalizing problems at both 1.5 years [β 0.25, 0.01–0.49] and 3 years [β 0.26, 0.002–0.52] while exposure to z-hypnotics was not associated with any adverse outcomes after adjustment. Conclusion The findings suggest a moderate association between BZD-anxiolytic exposure and child internalizing problems that is not likely due to stable familial confounding factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ragnhild E. Brandlistuen
- Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety Research Group, School of Pharmacy, PharmaTox Strategic Research Initiative, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
- * E-mail:
| | - Eivind Ystrom
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sonia Hernandez-Diaz
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | | | - Randi Selmer
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Marte Handal
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Hedvig Nordeng
- Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety Research Group, School of Pharmacy, PharmaTox Strategic Research Initiative, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
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Zucker I. Risk mitigation for children exposed to drugs during gestation: A critical role for animal preclinical behavioral testing. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 77:107-121. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2016] [Accepted: 03/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Mikulecká A, Subrt M, Pařízková M, Mareš P, Kubová H. Consequences of early postnatal benzodiazepines exposure in rats. II. Social behavior. Front Behav Neurosci 2014; 8:169. [PMID: 24982619 PMCID: PMC4055859 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2013] [Accepted: 04/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Social behavior represents an integral part of behavioral repertoire of rats particularly sensitive to pharmacological and environmental influences. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether early postnatal clonazepam (CZP) exposure can induce age-dependent changes related to expression of social behavior. The drug was administered from postnatal day (P) 7 until P11 at daily doses of 0.1, 0.5 and 1.0 mg/kg i.p. We designed three experiments to assess whether exposure to CZP affects social behavior in respect to the age of rats and the test circumstances, specifically their familiarity with test conditions during adolescence (P32), social behavior in juveniles and adolescents (P18–P42) and social behavior in a resident-intruder paradigm. The frequency and duration of a various patterns of social behavior related to play and social investigation not related to play were evaluated. The results showed that CZP postnatal exposure decreased social play behavior regardless of age and familiarity or unfamiliarity of experimental environment but did not affect the social investigation per se. When rats were confronted with an intruder in their home cages intense wrestling and inhibition of genital investigation were found. In conclusion, these findings show that short-term CZP postnatal exposure inhibits social play behavior and alters specific patterns of social behavior in an age and environment related manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Mikulecká
- Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Subrt
- Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Martina Pařízková
- Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Mareš
- Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Hana Kubová
- Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic Prague, Czech Republic
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Frieder B, Grimm VE. Prenatal Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) Treatment Given Through the Mother's Diet Causes Behavioral Deficits in Rat Offspring. Int J Neurosci 2009; 23:117-26. [PMID: 6541212 DOI: 10.3109/00207458408985353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The present study reports various developmental and behavioral changes in the offspring of rat dams that received monosodium glutamate (MSG) in the drinking water all through the second and third trimesters of pregnancy. Three main effects were observed in the MSG exposed offspring: (1) juvenile obesity; (2) reduced general activity levels; (3) a specific type of learning disability in discrimination learning involving choice between simultaneously present positive and negative stimuli.
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GABA homeostasis contributes to the developmental programming of anxiety-related behavior. Brain Res 2008; 1210:189-99. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2007] [Revised: 03/03/2008] [Accepted: 03/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Nicosia A, Giardina L, Di Leo F, Medico M, Mazzola C, Genazzani AA, Drago F. Long-lasting behavioral changes induced by pre- or neonatal exposure to diazepam in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 2003; 469:103-9. [PMID: 12782191 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-2999(03)01729-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Prenatal treatment with small doses of diazepam may counteract the effect of physical stress in rats, normalizing the time course of neonatal reflexes and the behavioral responses in adulthood. However, prenatal administration of diazepam in greater doses may induce desensitization of gamma-aminobutyric acid A (GABA(A)) receptors and induce hypersensitivity to convulsants. This study was designed to examine in rats the influence of prenatal or neonatal diazepam treatment on development of neonatal reflexes, as index of brain maturation, and susceptibility to pentylenetetrazol-induced convulsions in adulthood. Pregnant Wistar rats were injected with diazepam 2.5 mg/kg/day, intraperitoneally (i.p.) on days 14-21 of pregnancy. Offspring showed a delay in the appearing of neonatal reflexes (cliff aversion, forelimb placing, forelimb grasping and bar holding) except for righting and startle reflexes. At 50 days of age, male rats showed a greater sensitivity to pentylenetetrazol compared to controls. In contrast, females showed a decreased susceptibility to convulsions. The appearance of reflexes in pups exposed to diazepam during neonatal life appeared to be similar to that of controls. Only the appearance of cliff aversion and startle reflexes appeared to be delayed in animals exposed neonatally to diazepam as compared to controls. In adulthood, female rats exposed in early neonatal life to diazepam again showed a resistance to pentylenetetrazol-induced convulsions as compared to male animals. These data suggest that prenatal exposure to diazepam induces long-lasting behavioral changes, which may be influenced by sex-dependent factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annarita Nicosia
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Catania Medical School, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
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Prut L, Belzung C. The open field as a paradigm to measure the effects of drugs on anxiety-like behaviors: a review. Eur J Pharmacol 2003; 463:3-33. [PMID: 12600700 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-2999(03)01272-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2117] [Impact Index Per Article: 100.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The open field is a very popular animal model of anxiety-like behavior. An overview of the literature on the action elicited by effective or putative anxiolytics in animal subjected to this procedure indicates that classical treatments such as benzodiazepine receptor full agonists or 5-HT(1A) receptor full or partial agonists elicit an anxiolytic-like effect in this procedure in most cases (approximately 2/3). However, compounds (triazolobenzodiazepines such as adinazolam and alprazolam, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) that have a different spectrum of therapeutic efficacy in anxiety disorders such as panic attacks, generalized anxiety disorder or obsessive-compulsive disorder were poorly effective as anxiolytics in the open field test, suggesting that this paradigm may not model features of anxiety disorders. The procedure is also relevant for the study of compounds endowed with anxiogenic effects, as such effects were detected after treatments with benzodiazepine receptor inverse agonists or with corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) receptor agonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laetitia Prut
- EA3248, Psychobiologie des Emotions, Faculte des Sciences et Techniques, Universite Francois Rabelias, Parc de Grandmont Avenue Monge, 37200 Tours, France
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Oberlander TF, Eckstein Grunau R, Fitzgerald C, Ellwood AL, Misri S, Rurak D, Riggs KW. Prolonged prenatal psychotropic medication exposure alters neonatal acute pain response. Pediatr Res 2002; 51:443-53. [PMID: 11919328 DOI: 10.1203/00006450-200204000-00008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and benzodiazepines are frequently used to treat maternal depression during pregnancy, however the effect of increased serotonin (5HT) and gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA) agonists in the fetal human brain remains unknown. 5HT and GABA are active during fetal neurologic growth and play early roles in pain modulation, therefore, if prolonged prenatal exposure alters neurodevelopment this may become evident in altered neonatal pain responses. To examine biologic and behavioral effects of prenatal exposure, neonatal responses to acute pain (phenylketonuria heel lance) in infants with prolonged prenatal exposure were examined. Facial action (Neonatal Facial Coding System) and cardiac autonomic reactivity derived from the relationship between respiratory activity and short term variations of heart rate (HRV) were compared between 22 infants with SSRI exposure (SE) [fluoxetine (n = 7), paroxetine (n = 11), sertraline (n = 4)]; 16 infants exposed to SSRIs and clonazepam (SE+) [paroxetine (n = 14), fluoxetine (n = 2)]; and 23 nonexposed infants during baseline, lance, and recovery periods of a heel lance. Length of maternal SSRI use did not vary significantly between exposure groups-[mean (range)] SE:SE+ 183 (31-281):141 (54-282) d (p > 0.05). Infants exposed to SE and SE+ displayed significantly less facial activity to heel lance than control infants. Mean HR increased with lance, but was significantly lower in SE infants during recovery. Using measures of HRV and the transfer relationship between heart rate and respiration, SSRI infants had a greater return of parasympathetic cardiac modulation in the recovery period, whereas a sustained sympathetic response continued in the control group. Prolonged prenatal SSRI exposure appears to be associated with reduced behavioral pain responses and increased parasympathetic cardiac modulation in recovery following an acute neonatal noxious event. Possible 5HT-mediated pain inhibition, pharmacologic factors and the developmental course remain to be studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim F Oberlander
- Department of Pediatrics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
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Silva FR, Palermo-Neto J. Developmental, neuro and immunotoxic effects of perinatal diazepam treatment in rats. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 1999; 21:247-65. [PMID: 10319279 DOI: 10.3109/08923979909052761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
In utero exposure of rats to low dosages of diazepam (1.0-2.0 mg/kg) has been found to result in depression of the cellular and humoral immune responses during adulthood. Behavioral dysfunctions were also reported in infants from mothers with high benzodiazepine (BDZ) intake during pregnancy. The present experiment was undertaken to reconsider the potential action of diazepam during ontogeny in order to obtain further information about developmental processes using a refined methodology. Time-pregnant rats were treated subcutaneously with diazepam (2.0 mg/kg/day,: group E1) or with diazepam vehicle (group C1) from gestational day 14 to 20. Other dams (group E2) received the same BDZ dose from the 1st to the 21st day of lactation (weaning) or were not treated, remaining undisturbed in their home cages (group C2). The following results were obtained for animals perinatally treated with diazepam compared to groups C1 and C2: 1--increased time for testis descent and decreased time for vaginal opening (group E2); 2--no changes in the dates for ear end eye opening, or incisor tooth eruption (groups E1 and E2); 3--increased locomotor activity in the open-field (group E2) and/or in the plus maze (groups E1 and E2); 4--decreased levels of anxiety measured in the plus maze (groups E1 and E2); 5--decreased macrophage spreading and phagocytosis (groups E1 and E2). These results, which occurred in the absence of overt signs of maternal or fetal toxicity, demonstrate developmental, neuro- and immunotoxic effects of perinatal diazepam treatment in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- F R Silva
- Department of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of São Paulo, Brasil
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16
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Liu J, Morrow AL, Devaud LL, Grayson DR, Lauder JM. Regulation of GABA(A) receptor subunit mRNA expression by the pesticide dieldrin in embryonic brainstem cultures: a quantitative, competitive reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction study. J Neurosci Res 1997; 49:645-53. [PMID: 9302086 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-4547(19970901)49:5<645::aid-jnr15>3.0.co;2-u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Cyclodiene organochlorine pesticides, such as dieldrin, inhibit gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic neurotransmission by blocking the Cl- channel of GABA(A) receptors. This action may make the developing nervous system especially vulnerable to these neurotoxins, which could interfere with the trophic actions of GABA on developing neurons and alter expression of GABA(A) receptors. We have used an in vitro model to determine whether exposure to dieldrin alters developmental expression of GABA(A) receptor subunit mRNA transcripts. Dissociated cell cultures were prepared from embryonic day 14 (E14) brainstem and cultured in serum-containing medium for 1 day in vitro (DIV), then treated for 2 DIV with 10 microM dieldrin in serum-free medium. This dose was based on preliminary experiments and previous studies (Nagata et al.: Brain Res 645:19-26, 1994; Pomes et al.: J Pharmacol Exp Ther 271:1616-1623, 1994). Absolute amounts of alpha1, beta3, gamma1, gamma2S and gamma2L mRNA transcripts were quantified in these cultures by quantitative, competitive reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using subunit-selective internal standards. The most abundant GABA(A) subunit transcript was beta3, which was much more highly expressed than gamma2S, gamma1, gamma2L, or alpha1 subunit mRNAs. Dieldrin differentially regulated expression of these transcripts. Levels of beta3 subunit transcripts were significantly increased (by 300%) by dieldrin, whereas expression of gamma2S and gamma2L transcripts were decreased (by 50% and 40%, respectively). However, dieldrin did not alter the ratio of gamma2S to gamma2L transcripts, indicating that it did not affect alternative splicing of gamma2 transcripts. Dieldrin appeared to increase expression of alpha1 subunit transcripts, but this effect was not statistically significant. Dieldrin did not significantly alter expression of gamma1 subunit transcripts. These results support the hypothesis that in utero exposure to cyclodiene pesticides could pose a risk to the developing brain by virtue of their ability to alter gene expression of GABA(A) receptor subunits, which could produce GABA(A) receptors with altered functional properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Liu
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill 27599-7090, USA
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17
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Schroeder H, Humbert AC, Desor D, Nehlig A. Long-term consequences of neonatal exposure to diazepam on cerebral glucose utilization, learning, memory and anxiety. Brain Res 1997; 766:142-52. [PMID: 9359597 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(97)00538-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The long-term consequences of neonatal exposure to diazepam (DZP) on behavioral abilities and local cerebral glucose utilization (LCGU) in 12 brain regions involved in the control of memory and anxiety were studied in adult rats. Rat pups received a daily subcutaneous injection of 10 mg/kg DZP or of the dissolution vehicle from postnatal day (P) 2 to 21. Learning and memory were tested in P60-P70 rats over 5 consecutive days in a T maze and an eight-arm maze while anxiety and reaction to novelty were tested in a two-compartment box with a two-step staircase on the enriched side. LCGU was measured in the P60 rat by the quantitative autoradiographic [14C]deoxyglucose method. In the T maze, when performed without delay between the two trials, the rate of alternation was significantly lower in DZP- than in vehicle-exposed rats on the first 2 days of testing and similar in both groups on days 3-5. In the procedure with a 30 s intertrial delay, the rate of alternation was similar in DZP- and vehicle-treated rats on all days of testing. In the eight-arm maze, DZP-treated rats were more active, i.e., entered more arms per minute than control animals. The number of arms entered before the first error was lower on day 1 and higher on day 3 in DZP- compared to vehicle-exposed rats. In the two-compartment box, DZP-treated rats crossed more often and spent more time than controls on the lower step of the staircase while control rats made more rearings and spent more time than DZP-exposed rats in the well protected corner of the box. LCGU were decreased by early DZP exposure in six regions which were mammillary body, septum, visual and prefrontal cortices, dorsomedian caudate nucleus and mediodorsal thalamus. In conclusion, postnatal DZP treatment induced at adulthood an increase in activity, a delay in task acquisition but no learning-memory impairment and reduced the level of anxiety allowing active responding to novelty. These quite subtle behavioral changes were accompanied by discrete metabolic decreases in regions mediating anxiety, reflecting a change in the level of anxiety and emotionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Schroeder
- INSERM U 272, Université Henri Poincaré, Nancy, France
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18
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Jaquish CE, Toal RL, Tardif SD, Carson RL. Use of ultrasound to monitor prenatal growth and development in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Am J Primatol 1995; 36:259-275. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.1350360402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/1994] [Revised: 12/07/1994] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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19
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Schlumpf M, Parmar R, Bütikofer EE, Inderbitzin S, Salili AR, Schreiber AA, Ramseier HR, van Loveren H, Lichtensteiger W. Delayed developmental neuro- and immunotoxicity of benzodiazepines. ARCHIVES OF TOXICOLOGY. SUPPLEMENT. = ARCHIV FUR TOXIKOLOGIE. SUPPLEMENT 1995; 17:261-87. [PMID: 7786163 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-79451-3_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M Schlumpf
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Zürich, Switzerland
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20
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Muhammad BY, Kitchen I. Effect of chronic maternal diazepam treatment on the development of stress-induced antinociception in young rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1994; 47:927-33. [PMID: 8029264 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(94)90298-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The use and abuse of benzodiazepines is widespread and we have begun to address whether maternal exposure to these drugs influences the development of opioid systems. We have studied the effect of maternal diazepam treatment on stress-induced antinociception in the neonatal offspring. Diazepam (1 or 10 mg/kg) was administered twice daily to mothers from conception. Pre- and postweanling rat pups were assessed for opioid-mediated stress-induced antinociception by 3-min swimming and measuring nociception using the tail immersion test. In preweanling rats there was stress-induced antinociception in both vehicle- and diazepam-treated animals but in diazepam-treated groups (1 and 10 mg/kg) this was insensitive to reversal by the opioid antagonist naloxone, suggesting that nonopioid systems are operating this response. In postweanling rats a similar insensitivity to naloxone was observed in 1 mg/kg diazepam-treated groups; with 10 mg/kg diazepam there was no significant antinociception. The results suggest that maternal diazepam treatment interferes with the development of stress-mediated responses and that part of this toxicity is due to actions on opioid systems in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Y Muhammad
- Receptors and Cellular Regulation Research Group, School of Biological Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
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21
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Ricceri L, Calamandrei G, Alleva E. Prenatal oxazepam affects passive avoidance performance of preweaning mice. Brain Res Bull 1994; 33:267-71. [PMID: 8293311 DOI: 10.1016/0361-9230(94)90193-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
CD-1 outbred mice were exposed to oxazepam on fetal days 12-16 by maternal administration (per os of 15 mg/kg twice daily at 8 a.m. and 8 p.m.) and fostered at birth to untreated dams, while control mice received vehicle solution. Mice were then tested on postnatal day 14 and 15 in a passive avoidance apparatus for their ability to withhold a step-down response from a vibrating platform. The step-down response was punished with a mild footshock. Each animal was subjected to a maximum of 15 trials. Mice prenatally treated with oxazepam showed an impairment in the acquisition of the task as indicated by shorter latencies to step-down throughout the 15 trials in both sessions (days 14 and 15). As control nonreinforced animals prenatally treated with oxazepam did not show a similar alteration in latency to step-down, these data suggest that prenatal exposure to oxazepam influences behavioral performance of preweaning mice in an aversively motivated task.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Ricceri
- Behavioural Pathophysiology Section, Istituto Superiore di Sanita, Rome, Italy
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22
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Viggedal G, Hagberg BS, Laegreid L, Aronsson M. Mental development in late infancy after prenatal exposure to benzodiazepines--a prospective study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1993; 34:295-305. [PMID: 8463369 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.1993.tb00993.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Seventeen infants born to mothers who used benzodiazepines (BZD) throughout pregnancy were followed prospectively and compared with 29 infants born to mothers who had not used psychoactive substances. On the Griffiths' Developmental Scale, the BZD-exposed infants demonstrated consistently lower mean GQs and DQs for all subscales at 5, 10 and 18 months of age. The differences in GQ reached statistical significance at 10 and 18 months. The DQs differed significantly for all subscales at 10 months and for the personal-social behaviour and hearing and speech subscales at 18 months of age. We suggest that prenatal exposure to BZD may cause a general delay in mental development up to 18 months of age.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Viggedal
- Department of Paediatrics and Psychology, University of Göteborg, Sweden
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23
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Dell'Omo G, Wolfer D, Alleva E, Lipp HP. Impaired acquisition of swimming navigation in adult mice exposed prenatally to oxazepam. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1993; 111:33-8. [PMID: 7870931 DOI: 10.1007/bf02257404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Prenatally administered oxazepam (OX) impairs adult radial maze performance in mice, possibly by permanent hippocampal changes. CDI mice were tested in swimming navigation, a sensitive indicator for hippocampal damage. Ten males and ten females were exposed to OX on fetal days 12-16 by maternal administration PO of 30 mg/kg/day and fostered at birth to untreated dams, while control mice received vehicle solution. All mice were tested at 8-9 weeks for ability to find a submerged platform in a fixed location (acquisition: 18 trials, 6 trials per day) and for capacity to re-orient towards a new platform position (reversal: 12 trials, 6 trials per day). OX mice showed a slight but significant impairment of swimming navigation during the initial part of training, as indicated by longer swimming paths during the fourth and fifth trial (day 1), an impairment due both to delayed habituation to the novel stressfull condition and acquisition of platform climbing but unrelated to navigational abilities. No treatment-dependent differences were observed in the reversal phase. During reversal, both OX and control females spent significantly more time in swimming across the location of the old platform. Unrelated to navigational performance, females showed a slightly but significantly higher swimming speed than males. Due to the absence of any navigational impairment, data suggest that prenatal exposure to oxazepam exerts long-term influence on adult learning capacities primarily through interaction with brain systems located outside the hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Dell'Omo
- Section of Behavioural Pathophysiology, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
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24
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Segovia S, Pérez-Laso C, Rodríguez-Zafra M, Calés JM, Del Abril A, De Blas MR, Collado P, Valencia A, Guillamón A. Early postnatal diazepam exposure alters sex differences in the rat brain. Brain Res Bull 1991; 26:899-907. [PMID: 1933410 DOI: 10.1016/0361-9230(91)90255-i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The volume and neuron number of the sexually dimorphic accessory olfactory bulb and locus coeruleus are altered by early postnatal exposure (from the day of birth to postnatal day 16) to diazepam. After diazepam treatment, both volume and neuron number were decreased in the male accessory olfactory bulb and in the female locus coeruleus. These results indicate that early postnatal diazepam administration can bear gender-dependent teratogenic effects upon sexually dimorphic nuclei and suggest that endogenous benzodiazepines may be involved in the sexual differentiation of the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Segovia
- Departamento de Psicobiología, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Ciudad Universitaria, Madrid, Spain
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25
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Pellis VC, Pellis SM, Teitelbaum P. A descriptive analysis of the postnatal development of contact-righting in rats (Rattus norvegicus). Dev Psychobiol 1991. [DOI: 10.1002/dev.420240405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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26
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Bitran D, Primus RJ, Kellogg CK. Gestational exposure to diazepam increases sensitivity to convulsants that act at the GABA/benzodiazepine receptor complex. Eur J Pharmacol 1991; 196:223-31. [PMID: 1654253 DOI: 10.1016/0014-2999(91)90434-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Experiments examining seizure sensitivity were conducted on adult male offspring exposed to diazepam at 1.0 or 2.5 mg/kg per day in utero over gestational days 14-20. Threshold dosages to facial clonus, myoclonic jerk, clonic seizure, and extensor tonus were determined via i.v. infusion of bicuculline, methyl-6,7-dimethoxy-4-ethyl-beta-carboline-3-carboxylate (DMCM), picrotoxin, pentylenetetrazol, caffeine and strychnine. Relative to uninjected and vehicle-exposed adult male offspring, prenatal diazepam administration reduced the threshold for bicuculline- and DMCM-induced facial clonus and myoclonic jerk by 40-50%. The threshold dosages to facial clonus, myoclonic jerk and clonic seizure from picrotoxin infusion were similarly reduced in animals exposed to diazepam in utero. In contrast, seizure thresholds to pentylenetetrazol, caffeine and strychnine were not affected by early developmental exposure to diazepam. In parallel biochemical studies, an increased sensitivity to the antagonistic effects of bicuculline methiodide on gamma-aminobutyrate (GABA)-stimulated chloride influx was observed in cortical synaptoneurosomes from adult male progeny of diazepam-treated dams. The results are interpreted to reflect a long-lasting alteration in the function of the GABA/benzodiazepine receptor complex by prenatal diazepam exposure that is manifest at the behavioral and neurochemical level in a pharmacologic specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Bitran
- Department of Psychology, University of Rochester, NY 14627
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27
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Pohorecky LA, Roberts P. Activity in a modified open-field apparatus: effect of diazepam and prenatal stress. Neurotoxicol Teratol 1991; 13:129-33. [PMID: 2046632 DOI: 10.1016/0892-0362(91)90002-e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
We examined the effect of prenatal stress exposure on sensitivity to diazepam. The stress exposure consisted of handling pregnant rats 5 minutes daily from the 14th to 21st day of gestation. Male offspring were tested at 60 days of age in a modified open-field apparatus 30 minutes after injection with diazepam (0, 1, 5 mg/kg). The 5 mg/kg dose of diazepam depressed the frequency and duration of crossover, rearing, headpoke and corner activities. Rearing was not affected by the 1 mg/kg dose of diazepam. Defecation was increased by the 1 mg/kg dose, but was decreased by 5 mg/kg of diazepam. Prenatal stress exposure altered responsiveness to diazepam on only crossover activity and on defecation. Prenatally stressed animals exhibited an increase in crossover at the low dose of diazepam, while control offspring were insensitive to this dose level. Also, there were more boli in prenatally stressed rats treated with 1 mg/kg diazepam, while the 5 mg/kg dose of the drug decreased the number of boli. The other measures showed a trend in the same direction but the differences were not statistically significant. Thus our results indicate that prenatal stress has very specific effects on the sensitivity of adult offspring to diazepam.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Pohorecky
- Center of Alcohol Studies, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08855-0969
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28
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Pankaj V, Brain PF. Effects of prenatal exposure to benzodiazepine-related drugs on early development and adult social behaviour in Swiss mice--II. Antagonists. GENERAL PHARMACOLOGY 1991; 22:43-51. [PMID: 2050287 DOI: 10.1016/0306-3623(91)90307-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
1. The present experiment examined, using a battery of tests, the effects of in utero exposure of Swiss mice to the benzodiazepine antagonists Ro 15-1788 and CGS 8216 upon early development and adult behaviour. 2. Early development was facilitated by treatment of Ro 15-1788. CGS 8216 suppressed during later development. Effects on the righting reflex were seen on different postnatal days following exposure to different treatments. The other factors studied remained unaffected. 3. Effects on adult social behaviour were examined using the resident-intruder paradigm, by determining the time allocated to broad behavioural categories. Increases in attack and threat in male offspring of dams treated with Ro 15-1788 and CGS 8216 were found. Female offspring differed from controls in digging and defensive/submissive behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Pankaj
- School of Biological Sciences, University College of Swansea, U.K
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29
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Chesley S, Lumpkin M, Schatzki A, Galpern WR, Greenblatt DJ, Shader RI, Miller LG. Prenatal exposure to benzodiazepine--I. Prenatal exposure to lorazepam in mice alters open-field activity and GABAA receptor function. Neuropharmacology 1991; 30:53-8. [PMID: 1646419 DOI: 10.1016/0028-3908(91)90042-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Prenatal exposure to benzodiazepines may lead to developmental abnormalities in humans and animals. To assess the behavioral and neurochemical effects of such exposure, pregnant mice were treated with lorazepam, 2 mg/kg/day, from days 13-20 of gestation, and open-field activity was assessed in offspring at 3 and 6 weeks of age and the function of GABAA receptors at 6 weeks of age. Activity was increased in mice exposed to lorazepam, compared to untreated or vehicle-treated controls at 3 weeks, but was unchanged at 6 weeks. Muscimol-stimulated uptake of chloride was decreased in lorazepam-treated mice, compared to controls, with a decrease in maximum uptake but no change in the EC50 for muscimol. Concentrations of lorazepam in maternal plasma and brain showed a similar brain:plasma ratio as previously reported and concentrations in fetal brain were about 50% of maternal levels. Lorazepam persisted for 48 hours after birth in dams but not in the offspring. These results indicate persistent behavioral and neurochemical alterations after prenatal exposure to lorazepam. This model may be useful in assessing other effects of prenatal exposure to benzodiazepine.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Chesley
- Department of Psychiatry, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA
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30
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Guillamón A, Calés JM, Rodriguez-Zafra M, Perez-Laso C, Caminero A, Izquierdo MA, Segovia S. Effects of perinatal diazepam administration on two sexually dimorphic nonreproductive behaviors. Brain Res Bull 1990; 25:913-6. [PMID: 2289173 DOI: 10.1016/0361-9230(90)90187-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The effects of prenatal and/or early postnatal diazepam (DZ) administration on open field activity and continuously reinforced lever-pressing response were studied. Rat pups of both sexes were prenatally (during the last week of pregnancy) and/or postnatally (from the day of birth to day 16) daily exposed to a 2.5 mg/kg dose of DZ. At the age of 60 days all groups were tested in the open field for 5 consecutive days and thirty days later they were studied in a continuously reinforced lever-pressing situation during four consecutive days. In the open field test, females showed greater activity than males and prenatal and/or early postnatal DZ treatments did not alter this sexual dimorphism, although all treatments decreased the open field activity in both male and female 60-day-old rats. In the Skinner box, 90-day-old males presented higher rates of lever-pressing response than females, and only the early postnatal DZ treatment was effective in altering this sexual dimorphism, by decreasing the male's but not female's rates of response. These results are discussed in regard to the possible interaction between DZ and gonadal hormones during the early sexual differentiation period.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Guillamón
- Departamento de Psicobiología, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, Spain
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31
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Gruen RJ, Deutch AY, Roth RH. Perinatal diazepam exposure: alterations in exploratory behavior and mesolimbic dopamine turnover. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1990; 36:169-75. [PMID: 2349259 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(90)90144-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Perinatal exposure to diazepam has been shown to lead to alterations in motor activity and exploratory behavior in neonatal animals. Exploratory and locomotor behavior have been associated with changes in mesotelencephalic dopamine function. We have therefore examined the effects of perinatal diazepam administration on both exploratory behavior and mesotelencephalic dopamine turnover in the adult rat. Animals exposed to the benzodiazepine during the perinatal period engaged in significantly less exploratory behavior than did control subjects. The diazepam-induced alterations in behavior were developmentally specific: decreased exploratory behavior was observed at 90, but not 60, days of age. At 90 days of age, specific changes in dopamine turnover in diazepam-treated animals were restricted to mesolimbic (nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area) sites; alterations in dopamine turnover were not seen in other mesotelencephalic sites examined. The findings indicate that perinatal exposure to benzodiazepines leads to behavioral changes that are present in adulthood. These changes in exploratory behavior may be associated with alterations in mesolimbic dopamine function.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J Gruen
- Department of Psychology, New York University, NY 10003
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32
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Miranda RC, Wagner JP, Kellogg CK. Early developmental exposure to benzodiazepine ligands alters brain levels of thiobarbituric acid-reactive products in young adult rats. Neurochem Res 1989; 14:1119-27. [PMID: 2556649 DOI: 10.1007/bf00965618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Levels of thiobarbituric acid (TBA)-reactive material were measured in brain regions of 3-4 month-old rats following prenatal exposure to several benzodiazepine (BDZ) receptor ligands over gestational days 14-20. Prenatal exposure to diazepam (DZ) at 1.0 mg/kg/day markedly elevated levels of brain TBA-reactive material while exposure to a higher dose (2.5 mg/kg) induced a significant increase only in the hippocampus. Early exposure to the central-type BDZ agonist clonazepam as well as to the central-type antagonist Ro 15-1788 also increased brain levels of TBA-reactive material. Concurrent exposure to the higher dose of DZ partially attenuated the effect of Ro 15-1788. Prenatal exposure to the peripheral-type BDZ ligand PK11195 produced a profound increase in TBA-reactive products in all regions, and concurrent DZ exposure did not attenuate this effect, except in the basal ganglia. Measurement of TBA-reactive material from birth to 3 months indicated that the effect of prenatal exposure to DZ was not apparent until after 8 weeks of age. Acute in vitro exposure of adult and fetal tissue to DZ had no effect on TBA-reactive material. The results suggest an interference in the organization of cellular metabolism in the brain by developmental exposure to BDZ ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- R C Miranda
- Department of Psychology, University of Rochester, New York 14627
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33
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Miller LG, Roy RB, Weill CL, Lopez F. Persistent alterations in GABAA receptor binding and function after prenatal lorazepam administration in the chick. Brain Res Bull 1989; 23:171-4. [PMID: 2555030 DOI: 10.1016/0361-9230(89)90143-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Behavioral abnormalities have been reported in young and adult animals exposed to benzodiazepines prenatally. The presence of neurochemical alterations in the GABAergic system after prenatal benzodiazepine exposure was assessed in a chick model which avoids prenatal and postnatal maternal effects. The GABAA receptor complex, the presumed site of benzodiazepine action, was altered in adult chickens previously exposed to lorazepam for 10 days in ovo. Binding was decreased at the putative chloride channel site labeled by [35S]TBPS, coupling was decreased between this site and the GABA binding site, and function of the GABAA receptor in chloride uptake was diminished in animals exposed to prenatal lorazepam. Persistent neurochemical alterations in the GABAergic system accompany prenatal benzodiazepine exposure, and may influence subsequent behavior and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- L G Miller
- Department of Medicine, LSU Medical Center, New Orleans
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Rothe T, Bigl V. The ontogeny of benzodiazepine receptors in selected regions of the rat brain: effect of perinatal exposure to diazepam. Neuropharmacology 1989; 28:503-8. [PMID: 2542836 DOI: 10.1016/0028-3908(89)90086-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The postnatal development of the binding of [3H]flunitrazepam to benzodiazepine receptors has been studied in the frontal cortex, cerebellum, striatum, hypothalamus and hippocampus of the rat after prenatal, perinatal and postnatal exposure to diazepam. The dams were injected subcutaneously with single daily doses of 1 mg/kg of diazepam from day 7-20 of gestation or from day 15 of gestation day 6 after birth. Offspring of untreated dams were injected in the same way from postnatal day 7-20. The developmental profiles of the binding of [3H]flunitrazepam obtained in both control and diazepam-treated groups of animals were very similar. This supported the idea of a sequential development of benzodiazepine receptors in relation to the different rates of maturation of certain structures of the brain. Prenatal administration of diazepam resulted in an increase of the binding of [3H]flunitrazepam in the frontal cortex by 20% at postnatal day 90 and in a decrease of binding in the hippocampus by 14% at postnatal day 60 and an increase of binding by 18% at postnatal day 90. Perinatal exposure to diazepam did not affect the binding of [3H]flunitrazepam in the hippocampus in young adult offspring. Postnatal application of diazepam resulted in a transiently decreased binding of [3H]flunitrazepam in the cerebellum by 20% at postnatal day 28. The results obtained point to the necessity for a prolonged evaluation of events after exposure to diazepam in early stages of development of the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Rothe
- Paul Flechsig Institute for Brain Research, Department of Neurochemistry, Karl Marx University Leipzig, G.D.R
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Miller LG, Weill CL, Roy RB, Gaver A. Lorazepam administration during embryonic development alters GABAA receptor binding and function. BRAIN RESEARCH. DEVELOPMENTAL BRAIN RESEARCH 1988; 44:241-6. [PMID: 2852070 DOI: 10.1016/0165-3806(88)90222-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Prenatal exposure to diazepam has been reported to lead to behavioral alterations in young and mature animals, but the neurochemical basis of this effect is uncertain. To examine effects of embryonic benzodiazepine exposure on the gamma-aminobutyric acidergic (GABA)ergic) system, we assessed binding and function at the GABAA receptor complex in chick embryos treated with lorazepam, 2 mg/kg, for 2-10 days. There was no change in benzodiazepine receptor binding in cortex after lorazepam administration, but a decrease in the number of chloride channel sites was observed. Overall function at the GABAA receptor complex as assessed by chloride uptake into cortical synaptoneurosomes was decreased after 10 days of lorazepam, and possibly increased after 4 days of lorazepam. Similar results were obtained when embryos were treated for 2- and 4-day periods beginning on day 8. These results indicate that chronic lorazepam administration to embryos alters binding and function in the GABA system measured soon before hatching. These alterations, if persistent, may contribute to the behavioral changes seen in animals exposed prenatally.
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Affiliation(s)
- L G Miller
- Department of Medicine, LSU Medical Center, New Orleans 70112
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Grimm VE, Frieder B. Prenatal caffeine causes long lasting behavioral and neurochemical changes. Int J Neurosci 1988; 41:15-28. [PMID: 3410649 DOI: 10.3109/00207458808985738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The effects of prenatal exposure to caffeine were studied on later physical development, behavior and brain neurochemistry. Daily doses (150, 300 or 450 mg/L) of caffeine were given to rat dams during the last week of pregnancy. Prenatal caffeine exposure resulted in a number of behavioral and neurochemical changes in the offspring which were long lasting and dose related. The low dose (150 mg/L) of prenatal caffeine caused hyperactivity in an open-field. The high dose of caffeine caused learning disabilities in complex visual and auditory discrimination learning paradigms while simple motor learning or a spatial orientation task were not affected. Both male and female offspring showed some behavioral effects of caffeine exposure. The medium and high doses of caffeine resulted in weight gain that was observable as early as 35 days of age and increased progressively with age. This weight gain was associated with increased food intake. The neurochemical studies carried out at 2-3 months of age revealed an increase in choline uptake in hippocampus, mainly in the animals treated with the lower doses of caffeine and higher protein concentration (microgram/mg wet tissue) in the cortex or hippocampus of offspring exposed to the higher doses of caffeine. At 15 months of age, choline uptake in the frontal cortex was significantly reduced in the animals prenatally exposed to the 300 and 450 mg/L dose.
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Affiliation(s)
- V E Grimm
- Faculty of Agriculture, Hebrew University, Rehovot, Israel
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Hebebrand J, Hofmann D, Reichelt R, Schnarr S, Knapp M, Propping P, Födisch HJ. Early ontogeny of the central benzodiazepine receptor in human embryos and fetuses. Life Sci 1988; 43:2127-36. [PMID: 2850423 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(88)90363-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The early ontogeny of the central benzodiazepine receptor (BZR) was investigated in human embryos and fetuses between 7 and 26 weeks of gestation. Brain tissue was gained from terminated pregnancies or spontaneous abortions. Binding studies, which were performed with 3H-flunitrazepam (FNZ), revealed that specific benzodiazepine binding is already detectable at an embryonal age of 7 weeks post conceptionem. Binding at this early stage can be displaced potently by clonazepam and the inverse agonist beta-CCE. Additionally, 3H-FNZ binding is enhanced by GABA. Thus, benzodiazepine binding is of the central type. Receptor density increases steeply in whole brain between weeks 8 and 11 of gestation. In frontal cortex receptor density increases gradually between weeks 12 and 26 of gestation. No specific fetal disease entity (including trisomy 21) was consistently associated with exceptionally high or low Bmax-values.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Hebebrand
- Institut für Humangenetik, Universität Bonn, F.R.G
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Grimm VE, Frieder B. The effects of mild maternal stress during pregnancy on the behavior of rat pups. Int J Neurosci 1987; 35:65-72. [PMID: 3623821 DOI: 10.3109/00207458708987111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Mild maternal stress in the form of chronic daily subcutaneous injections of saline or the vehicle for diazepam to pregnant rats was shown to result in some long term, subtle but reliable, changes in the behavior of the offspring. The same vehicle given for the same period of time in the dam's drinking water, without injection had no effect on the development of later behavior of rat pups. Chronic prenatal injections of saline or vehicle for diazepam, used in many experiments as controls for the evaluation of drug effects were shown to have some long lasting behavioral effects in the offspring of the treated dams. The series of experiments reported here compared the offspring of saline or vehicle injected dams to those of uninjected dams on a variety of developmental measurements, an open field behaviour and on learning performance in a complex brightness discrimination maze.
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Frieder B, Grimm VE. Prenatal monosodium glutamate causes long-lasting cholinergic and adrenergic changes in various brain regions. J Neurochem 1987; 48:1359-65. [PMID: 3559553 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1987.tb05672.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Prenatal monosodium glutamate (MSG) given through the mother's diet was found previously to cause behavioral changes in the offspring, including learning disabilities. In the present study, neurochemical parameters were measured in the brains of prenatally exposed rats at various ages throughout development up to adulthood. At 15 days of age, choline uptake and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) activity in the frontal cortex were significantly reduced (by 80 and 25%, respectively) in MSG-exposed animals, whereas the same cholinergic parameters in hippocampus were not changed. During later development, choline uptake gradually increased, until in adulthood it became significantly higher in MSG-exposed animals than in the controls. This enhancement was found in both males and females. Our previous study showed that only the male offspring were learning disabled. Choline uptake and ChAT activity were enhanced in the hippocampus of adult male animals. Norepinephrine (NE) uptake was reduced (by 25%) in the frontal cortex of males only. There was no change in NE uptake in the hypothalamus.
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Grimm VE, Frieder B. Prenatal and early postnatal exposure to zimelidine: behavioral, neurochemical and histological findings in rats. Int J Neurosci 1987; 33:225-35. [PMID: 2954923 DOI: 10.3109/00207458708987407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Zimelidine (5 mg/kg/day s.c.) was administered to pregnant rats from day 10 to day 20 of gestation. The development and later open field and learning capacities of their offspring were compared to those of saline injected and untreated dams. The development and behavior of prenatally zimelidine exposed offspring resembled those of the untreated rather than the saline injected group. Pups that were nursed by zimelidine treated mothers, however, showed behavioral deficits compared to those that were nursed by saline injected dams. Prenatal or early postnatal exposure to the 5HT uptake inhibitor zimelidine did not affect 5HT uptake and release measured at 3 months of age. Histological examination of major organs of prenatally zimelidine exposed animals showed no pathological changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- S E File
- MRC Neuropharmacology Research Group, School of Pharmacy, University of London, U.K
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Brain PF, Ajarem JS, Petkov VV. The Utility of Ethological Assessments of Murine Agonistic Interactions in Behavioural Teratology: The Foetal Alcohol Syndrome. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1987. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-009-3359-0_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/03/2023]
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Schlumpf M, Lichtensteiger W. Benzodiazepine and muscarinic cholinergic binding sites in striatum and brainstem of the human fetus. Int J Dev Neurosci 1987; 5:283-7. [PMID: 2845718 DOI: 10.1016/0736-5748(87)90002-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The regional distribution of binding sites for [3H]flunitrazepam and [3H]N-methylscopolamine was studied in human fetal brain of 18 and 23 weeks gestation by in vitro autoradiography. Areas densely labelled by both ligands include the hypoglossal nucleus and the striatum. The latter is characterized by a patchy distribution of both binding sites reminiscent of acetylcholinesterase staining. Similarities with the rat fetus and the occurrence of binding sites in areas of potential significance for fetal behaviour are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Schlumpf
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Zürich, Switzerland
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Avnimelech-Gigus N, Feldon J, Tanne Z, Gavish M. The effects of prenatal chlordiazepoxide administration on avoidance behavior and benzodiazepine receptor density in adult albino rats. Eur J Pharmacol 1986; 129:185-8. [PMID: 3021475 DOI: 10.1016/0014-2999(86)90352-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Adult male and female offspring of rats injected daily with 10 mg/kg chlordiazepoxide during their pregnancy exhibited a facilitated acquisition of a two-way active avoidance response. Benzodiazepine receptor assays carried out on cortex and cerebral samples taken from experimental and control female rats showed a significant decrease in the density of benzodiazepine receptors, without changes in receptor affinity.
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Fujii T, Ohtaki Y, Nakanishi H, Morimoto S, Hayashi K, Yamamoto N. Alterations in the thermic response to chlorpromazine in rats exposed prenatally to central nervous system depressants. Neuropharmacology 1986; 25:845-51. [PMID: 3774115 DOI: 10.1016/0028-3908(86)90009-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The thermic response to acute administration of chlorpromazine (5 mg/kg, i.p.) was assessed in rats exposed prenatally to haloperidol (0.1 mg/kg), phenobarbital (10 mg/kg), nitrazepam (2 mg/kg), propylene glycol (1 ml/kg) or saline, once daily from days 1-21 or 15-21 of gestation. The response in all animals was tested only once. The administration of chlorpromazine to 8- or 13-week-old male and female rats treated with saline (1-21 d) induced marked hypothermia for a 6-hr period of observation. Male and female rats treated with haloperidol (1-21 d) showed a delayed hyperthermic response to chlorpromazine at 8 weeks of age; the males showed an increase in rectal temperature at 3 hr and the females from 3 to 6 hr. Thirteen-week-old males but not females treated with haloperidol (1-21 d) showed a hyperthermic response to chlorpromazine during the first 2 hr. Eight-week-old male and female rats treated with phenobarbital (1-21 d) showed hypothermia, whereas 13-week-old male rats of another group treated with phenobarbital (1-21 d) showed significant hyperthermia after the administration of the chlorpromazine. The hypothermic response of the rats treated with nitrazepam (1-21 d) to chlorpromazine was similar to that in the vehicle (propylene glycol)-treated controls. The male rats treated with phenobarbital (15-21 d) responded to chlorpromazine with significant hyperthermia from 30 min to 1 hr. There was no alteration in thermic response to chlorpromazine in rats born to mothers treated with one tenth of the dose of phenobarbital, haloperidol or nitrazepam.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Laitinen K, MacDonald E, Saano V. Effects of diazepam, tofizopam or phenytoin during foetal development on subsequent behaviour and benzodiazepine receptor characteristics in rats. ARCHIVES OF TOXICOLOGY. SUPPLEMENT. = ARCHIV FUR TOXIKOLOGIE. SUPPLEMENT 1986; 9:51-4. [PMID: 3028330 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-71248-7_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The development of rats was studied for 3 postnatal weeks after prenatal medication with diazepam (10 mg/kg/day), phenytoin (50 mg/kg/day), or tofizopam (50 mg/kg twice daily) given by gastric intubation from day 7 to 21 of pregnancy. The treatments had no effect on the litter size. There were also no differences between the groups in a battery of tests for development (negative geotaxis, righting reflex, cliff avoidance, rotarod, passive avoidance), but the activity spurt seen at postnatal days 18-21 was missing in pups of diazepam-treated mothers. The number of benzodiazepine receptors and their affinity for tritiated flunitrazepam developed similarly in all of the rat groups. Thus, the transient changes in motor development seen 2-3 weeks after birth of rats whose mothers received diazepam during pregnancy do not seem to be related to changes in ontogenesis of benzodiazepine receptors.
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48
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Grimm VE, Frieder B. Differential vulnerability of male and female rats to the timing of various perinatal insults. Int J Neurosci 1985; 27:155-64. [PMID: 4044127 DOI: 10.3109/00207458509149763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The results of five experiments showed that exposure to diazepam, hypoxia and monosodium glutamate during the prenatal or early postnatal period of rapid brain development may result in different behavioral consequences depending on the timing of the exposure rather than the nature of the agent. Moreover, male and female offspring may be affected differently by the same agent at different periods of development. Prenatal insults of various kinds impair the later performance of males but not the females in a complex learning task, while postnatal insults seem to affect detrimentally this same behavior in both males and females. The effects of perinatal insults on maze learning and open field activity do not lend themselves to explanation by "feminization" or "masculinization" of behavior caused by interference with prenatal gonadal hormones.
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Frieder B, Grimm VE. Some long-lasting neurochemical effects of prenatal or early postnatal exposure to diazepam. J Neurochem 1985; 45:37-42. [PMID: 2860209 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1985.tb05471.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Changes in the uptake of various neurotransmitters were measured in the frontal cortex and hippocampus of male and female rats that were exposed to diazepam through the placenta or through the mother's milk during the prenatal or early postnatal period of rapid brain development. Earlier studies from our laboratory showed that early diazepam exposure has long-lasting behavioral consequences. The present results show that prenatally diazepam-exposed rat pups show significant reduction in choline uptake in the frontal cortex at 10 days of age. At 60 days of age, both pre- and postnatally exposed males, but not females, show significant differences from controls in terms of choline uptake, whereas postnatally exposed females whose behavior was shown previously to be profoundly affected by the diazepam exposure showed significant increase in gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) uptake in the hippocampus and reduction of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT) uptake in the cortex at 60 days of age.
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Livezey GT, Radulovacki M, Isaac L, Marczynski TJ. Prenatal exposure to diazepam results in enduring reductions in brain receptors and deep slow wave sleep. Brain Res 1985; 334:361-5. [PMID: 2986786 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(85)90233-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
After prenatal exposure to diazepam (Valium), mature rats at 4 months of age displayed slow wave sleep (SWS) electroencephalographic patterns indicating impaired synchronization and SWS mechanisms. These animals spent a much greater portion of their SWS in the lighter SWS I, as compared to the control group which showed a predominance of the deeper SWS II. At one year of age, the diazepam-exposed rats had much fewer diazepam-specific binding sites in the thalamus than the vehicle-exposed controls. These results provide first evidence for a physiological role for benzodiazepine receptors by showing that prenatal exposure to diazepam has an enduring and detrimental effect on their ontogenesis and sleep mechanisms.
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