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Brijs J, Axelsson M, Rosengren M, Jutfelt F, Gräns A. Extreme blood boosting capacity of an Antarctic fish represents an adaptation to life in a sub-zero environment. J Exp Biol 2019; 223:jeb.218164. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.218164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Blood doping, the practice of boosting the oxygen carrying capacity of blood, is an illegal strategy used by human athletes to enhance aerobic capacity and athletic performance. Interestingly, the practice of boosting blood oxygen carrying capacity is also naturally prevalent in the animal kingdom via the splenic release of stored erythrocytes. Here we demonstrate that an Antarctic notothenioid fish, the bald notothen (Pagothenia borchgrevinki), is a master of this practice. Due to the sub-zero environment these fish inhabit, they sequester a large proportion of erythrocytes in the spleen during times of inactivity to reduce the energetic and physiological costs associated with continuously pumping highly viscous blood around the body. However, in response to metabolically demanding situations (i.e. exercise and feeding), these fish contract the spleen to eject stored erythrocytes into circulation, which boosts blood oxygen carrying capacity by up to 207% (c.f. exercise-induced increases of ∼40-60% in a range of other vertebrates and ∼5-25% in blood-doping athletes). By evaluating cardiorespiratory differences between splenectomized (unable to release erythrocytes from the spleen) and sham-operated individuals, we demonstrate the metabolic benefits (i.e. aerobic scope increased 103%) and the cardiovascular trade-offs (i.e. ventral aortic blood pressure and cardiac workload increased 12% and 30%, respectively) associated with the splenic blood boosting strategy. In conclusion, this strategy provides bald notothens with an extraordinary facultative aerobic scope that enables an active lifestyle in the extreme Antarctic marine environment, while minimizing the energetic and physiological costs of transporting highly viscous blood during times of reduced energetic demand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeroen Brijs
- Department of Animal Environment and Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Gothenburg, 405 30, Sweden
| | - Michael Axelsson
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, 405 30, Sweden
| | - Malin Rosengren
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, 405 30, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Jutfelt
- Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, 7491, Norway
| | - Albin Gräns
- Department of Animal Environment and Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Gothenburg, 405 30, Sweden
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2
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Kunz KL, Claireaux G, Pörtner HO, Knust R, Mark FC. Aerobic capacities and swimming performance of polar cod ( Boreogadus saida) under ocean acidification and warming conditions. J Exp Biol 2018; 221:jeb184473. [PMID: 30190318 PMCID: PMC6240293 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.184473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Polar cod (Boreogadus saida) is an important prey species in the Arctic ecosystem, yet its habitat is changing rapidly: climate change, through rising seawater temperatures and CO2 concentrations, is projected to be most pronounced in Arctic waters. This study aimed to investigate the influence of ocean acidification and warming on maximum performance parameters of B. saida as indicators for the species' acclimation capacities under environmental conditions projected for the end of this century. After 4 months at four acclimation temperatures (0, 3, 6, 8°C) each combined with two PCO2 levels (390 and 1170 µatm), aerobic capacities and swimming performance of B. saida were recorded following a Ucrit protocol. At both CO2 levels, standard metabolic rate (SMR) was elevated at the highest acclimation temperature indicating thermal limitations. Maximum metabolic rate (MMR) increased continuously with temperature, suggesting an optimum temperature for aerobic scope for exercise (ASex) at 6°C. Aerobic swimming performance (Ugait) increased with acclimation temperature irrespective of CO2 levels, while critical swimming speed (Ucrit) did not reveal any clear trend with temperature. Hypercapnia evoked an increase in MMR (and thereby ASex). However, swimming performance (both Ugait and Ucrit) was impaired under elevated near-future PCO2 conditions, indicating reduced efficiencies of oxygen turnover. The contribution of anaerobic metabolism to swimming performance was very low overall, and further reduced under hypercapnia. Our results revealed high sensitivities of maximum performance parameters (MMR, Ugait, Ucrit) of B. saida to ocean acidification. Impaired swimming capacity under ocean acidification may reflect reduced future competitive strength of B. saida.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Lore Kunz
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bentho-Pelagic Processes, Am Alten Hafen 26, 27568 Bremerhaven, Germany
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Integrative Ecophysiology, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
- University of Bremen, Fachbereich 2, NW 2/Leobener Strasse, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Guy Claireaux
- Université de Bretagne Occidentale, LEMAR (UMR 6539), Unité PFOM, Laboratoire ARN, Centre Ifremer de Brest, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Hans-Otto Pörtner
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Integrative Ecophysiology, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
- University of Bremen, Fachbereich 2, NW 2/Leobener Strasse, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Rainer Knust
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bentho-Pelagic Processes, Am Alten Hafen 26, 27568 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Felix Christopher Mark
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Integrative Ecophysiology, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
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Harter TS, Brauner CJ. The O 2 and CO 2 Transport System in Teleosts and the Specialized Mechanisms That Enhance Hb–O 2 Unloading to Tissues. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.fp.2017.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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4
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Enzor LA, Zippay ML, Place SP. High latitude fish in a high CO2 world: Synergistic effects of elevated temperature and carbon dioxide on the metabolic rates of Antarctic notothenioids. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2012; 164:154-61. [PMID: 22884997 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2012.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2012] [Revised: 07/26/2012] [Accepted: 07/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Although the physiological response of teleost fishes to increased temperature has been well documented, there is only a small body of literature that examines the effects of ocean acidification on fish under ecologically relevant scenarios. Furthermore, little data exists which examines the possible synergistic effects of increased sea surface temperatures and pCO(2) levels, although it is well established that both will co-committedly change in the coming centuries. In this study we examined the effects of increased temperature, increased pCO(2), and a combination of these treatments on the resting metabolic rate (RMR) of four species of notothenioid fish, Trematomus bernacchii, T. hansoni, T. newnesi, and Pagothenia borchgrevinki, acclimated to treatment conditions for 7, 14 or 28days. While most species appear capable of rapidly acclimating to increased pCO(2), temperature continues to impact RMRs for up to 28days. One species in particular, T. newnesi, displayed no acclimatory response to any of the treatments regardless of acclimation time and may have a reduced capacity to respond to environmental change. Furthermore, we present evidence that temperature and pCO(2) act synergistically to further elevate the RMR and slow acclimation when compared to temperature or pCO(2) increases alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura A Enzor
- University of South Carolina, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
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5
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Sandblom E, Olsson C, Davison W, Axelsson M. Nervous and humoral catecholaminergic control of blood pressure and cardiac performance in the Antarctic fish Pagothenia borchgrevinki. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2010; 156:232-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2010.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2009] [Revised: 02/04/2010] [Accepted: 02/10/2010] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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6
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Wells R, Dunphy B. Potential impact of metabolic acidosis on the fixed-acid Bohr effect in snapper (Pagrus auratus) following angling stress. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2009; 154:56-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2009.04.625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2009] [Revised: 04/29/2009] [Accepted: 04/30/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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7
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The Antarctic notothenioid fish Pagothenia borchgrevinki is thermally flexible: acclimation changes oxygen consumption. Polar Biol 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/s00300-007-0361-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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8
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Whiteley NM, Christiansen JS, Egginton S. Polar cod, Boreogadus saida (Gadidae), show an intermediate stress response between Antarctic and temperate fishes. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2006; 145:493-501. [PMID: 16987677 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2006.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2006] [Revised: 08/16/2006] [Accepted: 08/17/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
To examine whether the attenuated stress response observed in Antarctic notothenioid fishes is a specialism for life in sub-zero waters, the polar cod, Boreogadus saida, and the temperate shorthorned sculpin, Myoxocephalus scorpius, were subjected to various stress treatments. Activity stress in both species had no effect on plasma catecholamine and cortisol levels, splenic mass, and on the haematological variables in B. saida. In contrast, heat stress caused a significant rise in circulating noradrenaline and adrenaline levels in B. saida, accompanied by a significant increase in haematocrit and haemoglobin concentrations, at constant plasma cortisol levels, red blood cell count and splenic mass. A concomitant rise in blood lactate concentrations indicated that heat-stressed B. saida were hypoxaemic. The capacity to synthesise catecholamines in B. saida was 38% of the value in M. scorpius, but similar to the values for Antarctic notothenioids. The lack of any adrenergic response to activity stress suggests that dominance of cholinergic control of the cardiovascular system may not be restricted to Antarctic notothenioids. Rather, the stress response in B. saida appears to be intermediate between Antarctic and temperate teleosts, in keeping with their relatively recent occupation of cold Arctic waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- N M Whiteley
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, UK.
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9
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Thermal sensitivity of scope for activity in Pagothenia borchgrevinki, a cryopelagic Antarctic nototheniid fish. Polar Biol 2006. [DOI: 10.1007/s00300-006-0139-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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10
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11
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Respiratory Systems and Metabolic Rates. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/s1546-5098(04)22005-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
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12
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PÖrtner H, Lucassen M, Storch D. Metabolic Biochemistry: Its Role in Thermal Tolerance and in the Capacities of Physiological and Ecological Function. FISH PHYSIOLOGY 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/s1546-5098(04)22003-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
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13
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Blood‐Gas Transport and Hemoglobin Function in Polar Fishes: Does Low Temperature Explain Physiological Characters? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/s1546-5098(04)22007-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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14
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Antarctic Fish Skeletal Muscle and Locomotion. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/s1546-5098(04)22008-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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15
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Tuckey N, Davison W. Mode of locomotion places selective pressures on Antarctic and temperate labriform swimming fish. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2004; 138:391-8. [PMID: 15313495 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2004.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2004] [Revised: 05/30/2004] [Accepted: 05/31/2004] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The physiological responses to exercise and stress of the Antarctic labriform swimmer Pagothenia borchgrevinki were compared to the temperate labriform swimmers Notolabrus celidotus and Notolabrus fucicola. Basic swimming characteristics were very similar amongst the three species with P. borchgrevinki showing a reduced capacity for exercise. P. borchgrevinki showed large increases in haematocrit (Hct) following exercise that were not seen in the temperate species. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activities were high in the white myotomal muscle from the Antarctic fish, with a distinct indication of metabolic cold adaptation in this enzyme. Nevertheless, although the temperate fish showed elevated muscle lactate concentrations following either exercise or electrical stimulation the Antarctic fish did not. The data suggest that poor anaerobic performance of white muscle is associated with the labriform mode of locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Tuckey
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8001, New Zealand.
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16
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Franklin CE, Wilson RS, Davison W. Locomotion at –1.0°C: burst swimming performance of five species of Antarctic fish. J Therm Biol 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4565(02)00037-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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17
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Turning up the heat on subzero fish: thermal dependence of sustained swimming in an Antarctic notothenioid. J Therm Biol 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4565(02)00006-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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18
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Egginton S, Forster ME, Davison W. Control of vascular tone in notothenioid fishes is determined by phylogeny, not environmental temperature. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2001; 280:R1197-205. [PMID: 11247845 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.2001.280.4.r1197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We examined potential vasomotor control mechanisms in an Antarctic fish (Trematomus bernacchii; usual core temperature approximately -1 degrees C), comparing sensitivity to agonists by means of the cumulative dose response and potency with reference to depolarization by 50 mM KCl. In efferent branchial arteries, norepinephrine (NE) produced approximately 20% of the maximal KCl tension and ~40% in the presence of 10(-3)M sotalol, suggesting a modest contribution of alpha- and beta-adrenergic tonus [half-maximal response (pEC(50)) = 6.29 +/- 0.37 M]. Carbachol (CBC) and serotonin (5-HT) had different sensitivities (pEC(50) = 4.50 +/- 0.40 and 6.82 +/- 0.08 M, respectively) but similar potencies (21.6 +/- 11.1 and 31.1 +/- 5.3% of KCl). A related species from warmer waters around New Zealand, Paranotothenia angustata, had similar vascular reactivity for NE (pEC(50) = 5.48 +/- 0.31 M), CBC (pEC(50) = 4.94 +/- 0.22 M), and methysergide-sensitive vasoconstriction with 5-HT (pEC(50) = 6.22 +/- 0.40 M). Agonist potencies were 9, 65, and 45% that of KCl, respectively. Bovichtus variegatus, a member of the phylogenetic sister group to the notothenioids, also gave broadly similar responses. In contrast, Dissostichus mawsoni, a pelagic Antarctic notothenioid, showed a dominance of vasodilatation over vasoconstriction, with sensitive isoprenaline (pEC(50) = 6.66 +/- 0.05 M) but weak serotonergic (5.2 +/- 1.5% KCl) responses. The unusual dominance of serotonergic control appears to be primarily a consequence of evolutionary lineage rather than low environmental temperature, but the pattern may be modified according to functional demand.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Egginton
- Department of Zoology, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, New Zealand.
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20
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Hardewig I, Van Dijk PL, Portner HO. High-energy turnover at low temperatures: recovery from exhaustive exercise in Antarctic and temperate eelpouts. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY 1998; 274:R1789-96. [PMID: 9841552 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.1998.274.6.r1789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Earlier work on Notothenioids led to the hypothesis that a reduced glycolytic capacity is a general adaptation to low temperatures in Antarctic fish. In our study this hypothesis was reinvestigated by comparing changes in the metabolic status of the white musculature in two related zoarcid species, the stenothermal Antarctic eelpout Pachycara brachycephalum and the eurythermal Zoarces viviparus during exercise and subsequent recovery at 0 degreesC. In both species, strenuous exercise caused a similar increase in white muscle lactate, a drop in intracellular pH (pHi) by about 0.5 pH units, and a 90% depletion of phosphocreatine. This is the first study on Antarctic fish that shows an increase in white muscle lactate concentrations. Thus the hypothesis that a reduced importance of the glycolytic pathway is characteristic for cold-adapted polar fish cannot hold. The recovery process, especially the clearance of white muscle lactate, is significantly faster in the Antarctic than in temperate eelpout. Based on metabolite data, we calculated that during the first hour of recovery aerobic metabolism is increased 6.6-fold compared with resting rates in P. brachycephalum vs. an only 2.9-fold increase in Z. viviparus. This strong stimulation of aerobic metabolism despite low temperatures may be caused by a pronounced increase of free ADP levels, in the context of higher levels of pHi and ATP, which is observed in the Antarctic species. Although basal metabolic rates are identical in both species, the comparison of metabolic rates during situations of high-energy turnover reveals that the stenothermal P. brachycephalum shows a higher degree of metabolic cold compensation than the eurythermal Z. viviparus. Muscular fatigue after escape swimming may be caused by a drop of the free energy change of ATP hydrolysis, which is shown to fall below critical levels for cellular ATPases in exhausted animals of both species.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Hardewig
- Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Biologie I/Ecophysiologie, 27568 Bremerhaven, Germany
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22
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The effect of chronic heat stress on cortisol levels in the antarctic fishPagothenia borchgrevinki. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1995. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01922428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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23
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The effects of chronic exposure to the water soluble fraction of fuel oil on an antarctic fish Pagothenia borchgkevinki. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/0742-8413(93)90113-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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24
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The effects of acute exposure to the water soluble fraction of diesel fuel oil on survival and metabolic rate of an antarctic fish (Pagothenia borchgrevinki). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1992. [DOI: 10.1016/0742-8413(92)90061-b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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25
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26
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Franklin CE, Davison W, Carey PW. The stress response of an antarctic teleost to an acute increase in temperature. J Therm Biol 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/0306-4565(91)90040-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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27
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Davison W, Franklin CE, Carey PW. Oxygen uptake in the Antarctic teleost Pagothenia borchgrevinki. Limitations imposed by X-cell gill disease. FISH PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY 1990; 8:69-77. [PMID: 24221899 DOI: 10.1007/bf00004433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Fish in a population of Pagothenia borchgrevinki in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, are affected by a gill disease (X-cell disease) which causes tissue hyperplasia that results in a decreased gill surface area and an increased water/blood diffusion distance. P. borchgrevinki acquires 95% of its oxygen via the gills, but damage to the gills by X-cell disease did not affect this function. There was no compensatory shift to cutaneous respiration. X-cell disease reduced the ability for oxygen uptake at low ambient PO 2 and the decreased uptake was related to the extent of the disease. O 2 max was greatly reduced in X-cell affected fish and substantially reduced their aerobic potential. This effect may impair the ability of diseased fish to catch prey and avoid predators.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Davison
- Department of Zoology, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
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28
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Exhausting exercise in the hagfish, Eptatretus cirrhatus: The anaerobic potential and the appearance of lactic acid in the blood. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1990. [DOI: 10.1016/0300-9629(90)90743-c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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29
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Dunn JF, Archer SD, Johnston IA. Muscle fibre types and metabolism in post-larval and adult stages of notothenioid fish. Polar Biol 1989. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00263769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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30
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The aerobic scope of an antarctic fish, Pagothenia borchgrevinki and its significance for metabolic cold adaptation. Polar Biol 1987. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00297069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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