Pain and aggression: Some findings and implications

Experimentally manipulated anger activates implicit cognitions about social hierarchy

A correlational pilot study (N = 143) and an integrative data analysis of two experiments (total N = 377) provide evidence linking anger to the psychology of social hierarchy. The experiments demonstrate that the experience of anger increases the psychological accessibility of implicit cognitions related to social hierarchy: compared to participants in a control condition, participants in an anger-priming condition completed word stems with significantly more hierarchy-related words. We found little support for sex differences in the effect of anger on implicit hierarchy-related cognition; effects were equivalent across male and female participants. Findings fit with functionalist evolutionary views of anger suggesting that anger may motivate the use of dominance to strive for high social rank in group hierarchies. Implications for downstream behaviour, including aggression and negotiation, are discussed.

Anger is more strongly associated with alcohol and tobacco use and use disorders compared to other substances in American adults

Background: Anger is elevated in substance use disorders (SUDs) and related to problematic use. However, it is unclear whether anger is elevated in individuals who use substances, is only heightened among those with SUDs, and whether anger is more strongly tied to use of certain substances or SUDs.Objectives: We examine the association between anger, general substance use and SUDs.Methods: Data is N = 28,753 (55% female) respondents from the NESARC-III. Participants endorsing anger and indicating negative functional impact were deemed to have experienced significant anger.Results: Logistic regression examining the relative strength of associations between anger, substance use and SUDs (alcohol, opioid, stimulant, tobacco and cannabis) indicated that having a SUD was associated with anger beyond use alone. Alcohol (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.45; 95% CI 1.32-1.6) and tobacco (AOR = 1.38; 95% CI 1.27-1.51) use displayed the strongest odds of experiencing anger above and beyond other substances in the model. Similarly, alcohol (AOR = 1.45; 95% CI 1.31-1.62) and tobacco (AOR = 1.46; 95% CI 1.3-1.64]) use disorders had the greatest odds of anger relative to other SUDs. These results were significant after controlling for mood, anxiety disorders, and PTSD and no sex differences were observed.Conclusion: These results indicate that SUDs, particularly alcohol and tobacco use and disorders, are positively associated with experiencing anger beyond just substance use. Research must identify the mechanism driving this association to enhance treatments that target anger.

F@#k Pain! The Effect of Taboo Language and Gesture on the Experience of Pain

Swearing has been shown to reduce the experience of pain in a cold pressor task, and the effect has been suggested to be due to state aggression. In the present experiment, we examined whether producing a taboo gesture (i.e., the American gesture of raising the middle finger) reduces the experience of pain similar to the effect that has been shown for producing a taboo word. 111 participants completed two cold pressor trials in a 2 (Language vs. Gesture) × 2 (Taboo vs. Neutral) mixed design. We found that producing a taboo act in either language or gesture increased pain tolerance on the cold pressor task and reduced the experience of perceived pain compared to producing a neutral act. We found no changes in state aggression or heart rate. These results suggest that the pain-reducing effect of swearing is shared by taboo gesture and that these effects are likely not due to changes in state aggression.

Basic psychological need satisfaction and aggressive behavior: the role of negative affect and its gender difference

Background

Basic psychological need satisfaction (BPNS) is a significant factor in a person's development, especially for adolescents, and the failure to satisfy these basic needs may contribute to individuals' aggressive behavior. However, it is still unclear about the underlying mechanism by which BPNS is negatively associated with aggressive behavior. This study aimed to explore the relationship between BPNS and aggressive behavior in Chinese adolescents, with a focus on the mediating role of negative affect and its gender differences.

Method

A sample of 1,064 junior high school students from three schools in China were selected randomly for the cross-sectional survey. The revised Need Satisfaction Scale, the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, and Youth's Self-Report were used to measure BPNS, affect, and aggressive behavior. The proposed model was examined by the structural equation modeling test and multi-group comparison analysis.

Results

The results showed that BPNS was negatively linked with adolescents' aggressive behavior, and this effect was mediated by negative affect. Moreover, multigroup analysis demonstrated that there existed a stronger negative association between BPNS and negative affect in female group. Also, the mediating effect of negative affect in the model was greater for girls.

Conclusions

Our findings highlighted the importance of BPNS in adolescents' social behavior (i.e., aggressive behavior), and reveal disparate patterns in how BPNS affects aggressive behavior in girls as compared to boys.

Exploring the effect of ADHD traits on the moment-to-moment interplay between provocation and aggression: Evidence from dynamic structural equation modeling

The relation between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and aggression is well documented; however, the processes that account for higher levels of aggression associated with ADHD in the course of daily life are little understood. The current study used ecological momentary assessment to explore how ADHD traits relate to individual differences in perceiving provocation from others and the resultant aggressive behaviors; and the strengths of the links between provocation and aggression in the flow of daily life. A dynamic structural equation model was fit using data from a subpopulation of young adults involved in the longitudinal z-proso study (n = 259, median-age 20). Data on provocation and aggression was collected at four quasi-random time periods per day over a 14-day period. Individuals with higher ADHD trait levels reported higher instances of provocation and aggression, with ADHD traits significantly moderating aggression inertia such that those with higher levels of ADHD traits showed greater persistence of aggressive behavior over time. However, ADHD trait levels did not significantly moderate any of the observed cross-lagged effects. Our findings suggest that individuals with higher levels of ADHD traits are at greater risk of exposure to interpersonal interactions involving interpersonal provocation, show higher levels of aggressive behavior in daily life, and find it more difficult to reduce their aggression once triggered. These findings support the importance of targeting factors such as social skills and emotion regulation that may underpin the increased difficulties in interpersonal interactions often experienced by individuals with high levels of ADHD symptoms.

Need for closure and ethnic identification: The varied roles of cultural intelligence in a multiethnic group society

Multiethnic group countries are distinctive in that ethnic identification/loyalty and national identification/loyalty sometimes contend. In addition, the different ethnic groups that make up these countries though interdependent compete for relevance. Such a mode of social relationship creates uncertainty and heightens the consciousness of group survival. These characteristics make African countries rich sites for the investigation of intergroup relations. Given this context, the need for closure and cultural intelligence were examined in relation to ethnic identification. Data were collected via the use of questionnaires from a sample of undergraduate students drawn from different ethnic groups. Findings show that the need for closure and cultural intelligence are directly related to ethnic identification. Also, cultural intelligence was a significant moderator of the relationship between need for closure and ethnic identification. Findings suggest that cultural intelligence may encourage an open-mindedness which could help promote successful social interactions in multigroup countries. In addition, the results of this study support theoretical and empirical positions that have advanced group interdependence as a potent tool for intergroup cooperation.

The relationship between aggressive driving and driver performance: A systematic review with meta-analysis

Traffic crashes remain a leading cause of accidental human death where aggressive driving is a significant contributing factor. To review the driver's performance presented in aggressive driving, this systematic review screens 2412 pieces of relevant literature, selects and synthesizes 31 reports with 34 primary studies that investigated the driver's control performance among the general driver population in four-wheeled passenger vehicles and published with full text in English. These 34 selected studies involved 1731 participants in total. By examining the selected 34 studies, the measures relating to vehicle speed (e.g., mean speed, n = 22), lateral control (e.g., lane deviation, n = 17) and driving errors (e.g., violation of traffic rules, n = 12) were reported most frequently with a significant difference observed between aggressive driving and driving in the control group. The result of the meta-analysis indicates that the aggressive driving behaviour would have 1) a significantly faster speed than the behaviour in the control group with an increase of 5.32 km/h (95% confidence interval, [3.27, 7.37] km/h) based on 8 studies with 639 participants in total; 2) 2.51 times more driving errors (95% confidence interval, [1.32, 3.71] times) than the behaviour in the control group, based on 5 studies with 136 participants in total. This finding can be used to support the identification and quantification of aggressive driving behaviour, which could form the basis of an in-vehicle aggressive driving monitoring system.

Negative life events and aggression among Chinese rural left-behind adolescents: do self-esteem and resilience mediate the relationship?

BACKGROUND

Left-behind adolescents (LBAs) are adolescents aged 11-18 years who are separated from their parents and left behind in local cities by one or both parents for a period of more than 6 months. LBAs in rural areas are likely to engage in aggressive behavior, which can affect interpersonal relationships, reduce academic performance, and even lead to anxiety and depression. To our knowledge, no studies have examined the mediating effect of resilience and self-esteem on the relationship between negative life events and aggression among Chinese rural LBAs. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the relationship between negative life events and aggression among Chinese rural LBAs and how self-esteem and resilience mediate the association.

METHODS

Using a stratified random sampling method, 1344 LBAs in Hunan Province of China were investigated. Information was collected by a self-designed sociodemographic questionnaire, Adolescent Self-Rating Life Events Checklist, Resilience Scale Chinese Adolescent, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and Aggression Scales to assess the psychology of LBAs. Data analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, and regression analysis to estimate direct and indirect effects using bootstrap analysis.

RESULTS

Negative life events were significantly related to self-esteem (r = - 0.338), resilience (r = - 0.359), and aggression (r = 0.441). Aggression was directly affected by self-esteem (β = - 0.44) and resilience (β = - 0.34). Negative life events were not only directly related to aggression (β = 0.34, 95% CI: 0.275 ~ 0.398) but also showed an indirect effect on aggression through self-esteem and resilience. The direct effect, total effect and indirect effect of negative life events on aggression through self-esteem and resilience were 0.3364, 0.4344 and 0.0980, respectively. The mediating effect of self-esteem and resilience accounted for 22.56% of the relationship between negative life events and aggression.

CONCLUSIONS

We found that self-esteem and resilience mediated most negative life events on aggression. It is imperative for educators and families to improve LBAs' self-esteem and resilience to reduce the occurrence of aggression. Future intervention studies should be designed to strengthen self-esteem and resilience.

Pain sensitivity and perceptual sensitivity are associated with severity of emotional dysregulation in children with ADHD: a cross-sectional analysis using the Temperament in Middle Childhood Questionnaire

PURPOSE

Nearly 50% of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) experience emotional dysregulation or sensory over-responsiveness; this study examines their association.

METHODS

This cross-sectional analysis (n = 124) used data from the Micronutrients for ADHD in Youth (MADDY) Study, which enrolled children aged 6-12 with ADHD and emotional dysregulation. Sensory responsiveness was assessed using two subscales from the factor-analyzed Temperament in Middle Childhood Questionnaire: Pain Sensitivity and Perceptual Sensitivity. Emotional dysregulation was assessed using the Emotional-Problems and Conduct-Problems subscales from the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and a composite score from the Child & Adolescent Symptom Inventory-5. Multivariable linear regression measured the association of pain and perceptual sensitivity with the severity of emotional dysregulation.

RESULTS

In adjusted models, pain sensitivity was positively associated with Emotional Problems (β = 0.97; 95% CI: 0.52, 1.41; p < 0.0001), Conduct Problems (β = 0.83; 95% CI: 0.44, 1.21; p = 0.0001), and CASI-5 composite (β = 0.25; 95% CI: 0.16, 0.34; p < 0.0001). Perceptual sensitivity was positively associated with Emotional Problems (β = 0.75; 95% CI: 0.15, 1.35; p = 0.01) but not Conduct Problems (β = 0.27; 95% CI: -0.24, 0.77; p = 0.30) or CASI-5 composite (β = 0.12; 95% CI: -0.01, 0.24; p = 0.07).

CONCLUSION

Pain sensitivity was associated with the severity of emotional dysregulation in this ADHD sample. To better understand possible causal links, longitudinal studies are warranted.Implications for rehabilitationEmotional dysregulation and sensory over-responsiveness are both common in children with ADHD and contribute to added challenges in school and family life.Two types of sensory over-responsiveness, pain sensitivity and perceptual sensitivity, were associated with emotional dysregulation in children with ADHD in our study.Sensory over-responsiveness may be a modifiable treatment target.

Incidental physical pain reduces brain activities associated with affective social feedback and increases aggression

Physical pain may lead to aggressive behavior in a social context. However, it is unclear whether this is related to changes of social information processing. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the neural mechanisms underlying pain-induced aggression using functional magnetic resonance imaging. In the experiment, 59 healthy participants were recruited: 31 were treated with topical capsaicin cream (pain group) and 28 with hand cream (control group). Participants completed a social network aggression task, during which they underwent two phases: feedback processing and attack exerting. The results revealed that participants in the pain group exhibited more aggression than those in the control group. During the feedback-processing phase, physical pain reduced brain activation in the right insula, left orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex, which typically exhibited stronger activation in response to negative (and positive) vs neutral social feedback in the control group. However, during the attack-exerting phase, pain did not significantly alter the activation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. These findings suggest that pain increased aggression, while before that, it suppressed brain activities of the salience network involved in the process of salient social information and the value system associated with the value representation of social events.

Anger and substance use in HIV-positive patients with chronic pain

Chronic pain increases the risk of substance use in people living with HIV (PLWH). Depression and anxiety have also been identified as risk factors for substance use among PLWH. Relatedly, other negative mood states, such as anger, may influence chronic pain among PLWH. The current cross-sectional study examined whether the distinct negative mood state of anger is associated with substance use among 187 PLWH who report chronic pain. Using negative binomial regression analyses, we found higher levels of anger were positively associated with alcohol use. Higher levels of anger were inversely associated with benzodiazepine use. No association was found between anger and marijuana use, and there were no significant interactions between anger and pain severity on substance use. Our findings suggest that anger is an independent risk factor for substance use among PLWH and chronic pain. Addressing anger may be useful when adapting behavioral therapies in the treatment of pain among PLWH.

Modeling Daily Partner Violence and Substance Use Based upon Couple's Reporting

While agent-based models (ABMs) have successfully modeled violence and women's decision-making, they relied upon studies of her daily reports of violence and household environment; these models were not based upon descriptions of his emotions and perceptions. The purpose of this study was to improve our understanding of the triggers of violent events within violent relationships through agent-based modeling by including men's perceptions and emotions. An agent-based model was created of couples with history of violence based upon results of a study involving multiple time series of partner violence, including couples' daily reports of their emotions and perceptions. To explore factors that may alter model results, seven continuous variable parameters were created based upon significant (p ≤ .05) but discrepant (opposite directions) in prior studies. To assess the potential impact that influencing factors such as random stress as well as his and her feelings and behaviors could have on violence and stalking, the impact of these factors was also assessed. Results found that, at baseline, which included no extremes in variable parameters, no violence emerged. One prior-day→same-day relationship (HerConcern→HerConcern) was particularly important in this ABM. Men's and women's drug use and refraining from arguments had little impact on any outcome, but his and her alcohol use, his sense of insult and her violence all had significant effects. In fact, women's alcohol use interacted with other influencing variables and was a source of atypical patterns. In conclusion, incorporating men's perceptions into an ABM of partner violence resulted in important differences compared with ABMs based solely on women's input. Not only were women's daily concerns about the effect of violence on children was critical to results, but this ABM demonstrated the complexity of partner violence in response to influences as illustrated by contextual dependence, interaction effects and synergy.

Effect of Social Exclusion on Social Maladjustment Among Chinese Adolescents: A Moderated Mediation Model of Group Identification and Parent-Child Cohesion

Social exclusion is a covert and widespread social behavior. Different from previous studies on the role of internal and social functions in the relationship between social exclusion and maladjustment, the study aims to explore the influence of individual interaction on the individual-group relationship as well as the impact of relationship changes on adolescent social maladjustment. Based on an integration of social information processing theory and social identification theory, we analyzed the association between social exclusion and adolescents' social maladjustment, especially the mediating role of group identification and the moderating role of parent-child cohesion. Participants were 1,506 Chinese adolescents (M_age = 16.18 years, SD = 0.81). The results demonstrated that the association between social exclusion and adolescent social maladjustment was partly mediated by group identification. Parent-child cohesion was found to moderate the direct effect and first half of mediating path after splitting gender variable. Our findings expand the extant insights on how social exclusion could contribute to adolescent social maladjustment and highlight the important role of father in later adolescence development.

From gratitude to injustice: Neurocomputational mechanisms of gratitude-induced injustice

Gratitude shapes individuals' behaviours and impacts the harmony of society. Many previous studies focused on its association with prosocial behaviours. A possibility that gratitude can lead to moral violation has been overlooked until recently. Nevertheless, the neurocognitive mechanisms of gratitude-induced moral violation are still unclear. On the other hand, though neural correlates of the gratitude's formation have been examined, the neural underpinnings of gratitude-induced behaviour remain unknown. For addressing these two overlapped research gaps, we developed novel tasks to investigate how participants who had received voluntary (Gratitude group) or involuntary help (Control group) punished their benefactors' unfairness with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The Gratitude group punished their benefactors less than the Control group. The self-report and computational modelling results demonstrated a crucial role of the boosted protection tendency on behalf of benefactors in the gratitude-induced injustice. The fMRI results showed that activities in the regions associated with mentalizing (temporoparietal junction) and reward processing (ventral medial prefrontal cortex) differed between the groups and were related to the gratitude-induced injustice. They suggest that grateful individuals concern for benefactors' benefits, value chances to interact with benefactors, and refrain from action that perturbs relationship-building (i.e., exert less punishment on benefactors' unfairness), which reveal a dark side of gratitude and enrich the gratitude theory (i.e., the find-bind-remind theory). Our findings provide psychological, computational, and neural accounts of the gratitude-induced behaviour and further the understanding of the nature of gratitude.

Contextual Modulation of Binary Decisions in Dyadic Social Interactions

The present experimental design allowed binary decisions (i.e., to choose between proactive approaching or withdrawing behavior). These decisions were made on complex social interaction scenarios displayed on videos. The videos were taken from a first-person perspective. They were preceded by one sentence each that provided additional information about the context of the displayed scenario. The sentence preceding the video and the video jointly provided a context of emotional valence. That context varied from trial to trial. We observed that provocative and threatening videos produced predominantly fear and anger responses. Fear was associated with withdrawal decisions, while anger led to approach decisions. Negative contextual information increased the probability of approach decisions in aggressive provocative videos; positive contextual information enhanced the chance of approach decisions in socially positive videos. In neutral situations, displayed in videos, the probability of the approach behavior was reduced in case of negative contextual information. Yet, the probability for approach behavior was increased if positive contextual information preceded neutral videos. Our experimental setup provided a paradigm that can be adapted and accommodated for the examination of future research questions on social decisions in multidimensional, complex social situations.

Anxious and Angry: Emotional Responses to the COVID-19 Threat

The current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic elicits a vast amount of anxiety. In the current study, we investigated how anxiety related to COVID-19 is associated with support for and compliance with governmental hygiene measures, and how these are influenced by populist attitudes, anger at the government, and conspiracy mentalities. We conducted an online survey in April 2020 in four different countries (Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, and the UK; N = 2,031) using a cross-sectional design. Results showed that (1) anxiety related to COVID-19 is associated with conspiracy beliefs, anger at the government, and populist attitudes, and (2) support for and compliance with hygiene measures are both positively predicted by anxiety related to COVID-19; however, (3) support for hygiene measures is also predicted by populist attitudes and negatively by conspiracy mentalities, whereas compliance with hygiene measures is more strongly predicted by anger at transgressors (anger at people transgressing the hygiene measures). Consequently, although anxiety related to COVID-19 concerns the health of individual people, it also has political and social implications: anxiety is associated with an increase in anger, either at transgressors or the government.

Aggression in the Digital Era: Assessing the Validity of the Cyber Motivations for Aggression and Deviance Scale

Empirical studies of adult cyber-aggression are sparse, partly due to a lack of validated assessments. We evaluated a new measure, the Cyber Motivations for Aggression and Deviance (Cyber-MAD) scale, designed to assess the motivations of adult cyber-aggression. Psychometric properties and factor structure were examined across three adult samples who regularly used the internet and reported a history of cyber-aggression. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of the motivations for cyber-aggression indicated an eight-factor model best fit the data, with separable factors emerging for cyber-aggression motivated by a desire to affiliate with others (Social Bonding), advance or defend political/social issues (Social Activism), act on angry feelings (Reactive Aggression), cope with relationship stress (Interpersonal Distress), satisfy impulsive urges (Impulsivity), adopt a new online persona (Virtual Dissociation), experience excitement (Thrill-Seeking), and seek revenge (Vengeance). Overall, the Cyber-MAD scale showed good internal consistency, structural stability across samples, and construct validity, supporting its initial validation.

A Review on Mitigating Fear and Aggression in Dogs and Cats in a Veterinary Setting

Simple Summary

The majority of dogs and cats are fearful during veterinary visits, and some individuals may show aggression as a result. We review ways to avoid negative experiences and promote positive emotions in animals visiting the veterinarian. Whenever an animal is in the practice, the veterinary team should endeavour to make the visit as pleasant as possible, by using non-threatening body language and by creating positive associations. High-value food (unless an animal needs to be fasted) or toys should be used generously throughout the visit. In the interaction with the animals, low-stress handling methods, brief pauses and adjusting the procedure based on the animal’s body language help them to feel secure. Distractions can be used to minimise perceived pain such as from injections. If a known painful area needs to be treated, pain killers are advised. For animals that are very fearful, several medication options are available that can be given prior to the veterinary visit to help them with their fears. With reward-based training, animals can learn to accept veterinary procedures. A stress-free veterinary visit benefits all involved parties—the animals, their owners, as well as the veterinary team.

Abstract

A high proportion of dogs and cats are fearful during veterinary visits, which in some cases may escalate into aggression. Here, we discuss factors that contribute to negative emotions in a veterinary setting and how these can be addressed. We briefly summarise the available evidence for the interventions discussed. The set-up of the waiting area (e.g., spatial dividers; elevated places for cat carriers), tailoring the examination and the treatment to the individual, considerate handling (minimal restraint when possible, avoiding leaning over or cornering animals) and offering high-value food or toys throughout the visit can promote security and, ideally, positive associations. Desensitisation and counterconditioning are highly recommended, both to prevent and address existing negative emotions. Short-term pain from injections can be minimised by using tactile and cognitive distractions and topical analgesics, which are also indicated for painful procedures such as ear cleanings. Recommendations for handling fearful animals to minimise aggressive responses are discussed. However, anxiolytics or sedation should be used whenever there is a risk of traumatising an animal or for safety reasons. Stress-reducing measures can decrease fear and stress in patients and consequently their owners, thus strengthening the relationship with the clients as well as increasing the professional satisfaction of veterinary staff.

Pain-induced aggression and changes in social behavior in mice

The effects of neuropathic, formalin, and acetic acid-induced visceral pain were investigated on the social and aggressive behaviors in the Swiss male mice. Neuropathic pain was induced by tibial nerve transection (TNT). Also, somatic and visceral pain was conducted by intraplantar injection of diluted formalin (1%, 20 μl) and intraperitoneal administration of acetic acid (0.6%, 200 μl), respectively. Fourteen and twenty one days after the TNT surgery, and also, 1 and 7 days following formalin and acetic acid administration, the three-chambered test was used to determine sociability and preference for social novelty and resident/intruder test was used for the evaluation of the aggressive behaviors. In the sociability phase of the three-chambered test, all the three models of pain did not change the animal's sociability. However, in the social novelty preference phase, the animals in pain showed deficits in social novelty preference by a significant increase in the time spent with the familiar mice compared to the control groups. Also, animals in pain significantly showed more aggressive behaviors like biting and clinching and have much less attack latency in comparison to the control groups. Pain-induced changes in the social novelty preference and aggressive behaviors continued in the neuropathic group until the end of the experiment. However, 7 days following the induction of both formalin and visceral pain, animals' social memory, and aggression almost returned to the standard value. These results suggest that long-lasting pain could lead to social memory impairment and increase aggressive behaviors in mice.

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health in the general Chinese population: Changes, predictors and psychosocial correlates

The current COVID-19 pandemic is not only a threat to physical health, but also brings a burden to mental health in the general Chinese population. However, the temporal change of mental health status due to pandemic-related stress in relation to protective and risk factors to hostility is less known. This study was implemented at two timepoints, i.e., during the peak and the remission of the COVID-19 pandemic. 3233 Chinese individuals participated in the first wave, and among them 1390 participants were followed in a second wave. The result showed that fear significantly decreased over time, while depression level significantly increased during the second wave compared to the first wave of the survey. Younger age, lower-income, increased level of perceived stress, and current quarantine experience were significant predictors of depression escalation. Younger people and individuals who had a higher initial stress response tended to show more hostility. Furthermore, the use of negative coping strategy plays a potential intermediating role in the stress-related increase in hostility, while social support acts as a buffer in hostility in the general population under high stress. As the whole world is facing the same pandemic, this research provides several implications for public mental health intervention.

Emotional and Cognitive Responses to Theatrical Representations of Aggressive Behavior

Representation of human conflict is central to theater performance. In our study, we have used self-reported measures of emotional experience and a word recall task, in order to assess the effects of theatrical representations of violence. Forty participants were randomly assigned to the role of performer or spectator, in either a realistic representation of a script or in a version that recollected the same actions of the script in a series of intertwined monologs. The script represented an aggressive interaction between two work colleagues. Our results show both statistically significant differences in the levels of depression and positive emotions reported after enacting the script, as well as differences in the performance on the word recall task containing aggressive related and non-related stimuli. The results point to stronger effects for performing theatrical representations of violent actions, as compared to recollecting or watching such actions. The fact that actors experienced higher positive emotions is in line with the two-pedal model of aggressive behavior. This model suggests that negative emotions toward aggressive behavior might change to positive emotions due to the repetition in performing violent behaviors, as a key for the transition from reactive aggression to appetitive aggression. Other implications for the study of aggression in theatrical representations are discussed.

Relationship between heart rate variability and aggressive behavior among patients with schizophrenia hospitalized in acute wards

PURPOSE

To explore the state of mental treatment, heart rate variability (HRV), level of aggressive behavior, and their relationships among hospitalized patients with schizophrenia.

DESIGN AND METHODS

This study adopted a follow-up design and convenience sampling. Thirty-three subjects completed the questionnaire, and their HRV indices were measured.

FINDINGS

Patients' psychiatric symptoms showed a significant downward trend after hospitalization (P = .003). The standard deviation of the normal-to-normal intervals in the morning was significantly correlated with overall aggression, physical aggression, and verbal aggression.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

HRV can be regularly monitored among inpatients with schizophrenia with a risk of high aggression as an indicator of possible aggressive behavior.

Understanding Brain Mechanisms of Reactive Aggression

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To review the current literature on biobehavioral mechanisms involved in reactive aggression in a transdiagnostic approach.

RECENT FINDINGS

Aggressive reactions are closely related to activations in the brain's threat circuitry. They occur in response to social threat that is experienced as inescapable, which, in turn, facilitates angry approach rather than fearful avoidance. Provocation-induced aggression is strongly associated with anger and deficits in cognitive control including emotion regulation and inhibitory control. Furthermore, the brain's reward system plays a particular role in anger-related, tit-for-tat-like retaliatory aggression in response to frustration. More research is needed to further disentangle specific brain responses to social threat, provocation, and frustration. A better understanding of the psychological and neurobiological mechanisms involved in reactive aggression may pave the way for specific mechanism-based treatments, involving biological or psychotherapeutic approaches or a combination of the two.

Child-related attributions of hostile intent and harsh discipline: Moderating effects of anger

Two studies tested whether attributions of hostile intent (AHI) and anger for ambiguous child behaviors uniquely predict parents' harsh verbal discipline (HVD) and harsh physical discipline (HPD) or whether AHI only predicts harsh discipline when AHI occurs in conjunction with anger, as suggested by the Integrated Cognitive Model of general aggression (Wilkowski & Robinson, 2010, J. Pers., 78, 9-38). Replicating previous studies, the expected positive bivariate relationships between AHI, anger, HVD, and HPD were found in Study 1 (N = 493). However, when AHI, anger, and the AHI by anger interaction were considered simultaneously, patterns of prediction varied by discipline type. For HVD, high levels of AHI, high levels of anger, and the AHI by anger interaction (at high levels of AHI and anger) each were significant predictors. For HPD, low levels of AHI, high levels of anger, and the AHI by anger interaction (at high levels of AHI and anger) were significant predictors, suggesting a possible suppressor effect for AHI. These results were replicated in Study 2 ( N = 503). Thus, there was support for the contention that AHI only predicts harsh discipline when AHI occurs in conjunction with anger with respect to HPD but this was not the case for HVD. Since AHI suppressor effects were observed for HPD in two large sample studies, variables that may account for the AHI suppressor effects and the need for testing more complex interactive predictive models of harsh parenting behaviors are discussed.

Mutual interactions between cognition and welfare: The horse as an animal model

Research in cognitive psychology has repeatedly shown how much cognition and emotions are mutually related to one another. Psychological disorders are associated with cognitive (attention, memory and judgment) biases and chronic pain may affect attention, learning or memory. Laboratory studies have provided useful insights about the processes involved but observations about spontaneous animal models, living in different stress/welfare conditions may help understand further how cognition and welfare are interrelated in the « real world ». Domestic horses constitute such a model as they live in a variety of conditions that impact differently their welfare state. In the present review, we try and provide an overview of the scientific literature on cognition and welfare of domestic horses and their interrelationship. We address how emotions and welfare may affect cognitive processes in horses and impact the way they perceive their environment (including work). We propose new methods for assessing the relationship between welfare and cognition and open up the discussion on the evolution of the brain and the part domestication may have played.

Brazilian adaptation of the driving anger expression inventory: testing its psychometrics properties and links between anger behavior, risky behavior, sensation seeking, and hostility in a sample of Brazilian undergraduate students

INTRODUCTION

In Brazil, driver aggressiveness in road traffic is a critical issue and could be an important contributing factor to the high number of traffic accidents. Because no instruments are available in Portuguese to register driving aggressiveness or driving anger in Brazil, we adapted English instruments into the Brazilian context. The aims of this study were to provide a Brazilian adaptation of the Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX) and to try to validate it by testing its psychometric properties and investigating its relationships with risky driving behaviors (DBQ), road accidents, driving sensation seeking, and hostility.

METHOD

The Brazilian adaptations of the DAX, DBQ, the Driving Sensation Seeking Scale (DSSS) and the hostility Scale were administered to a sample of 512 undergraduate students (with a mean age of 23.7 years, 52.1% men).

RESULTS

Confirmatory factor analysis of the Brazilian DAX (DAX-BR) items yielded a four-factor solution with 43 items, which obtained the best goodness-of-fit to the data. Cronbach's alpha for the DAX-BR factors ranged from 0.69 to 0.88. Other results on validity were a positive correlation (range 0.39-0.59) between the factors of the DAX-BR, DSSS, and DBQ.

CONCLUSION

DAX-BR as the same structure as the original and is a reliable instrument for use with young drivers. Other studies should be conducted to further validate the DAX-BR in different types of populations such as older and more experienced drivers, professional drivers, and traffic regulation offenders whose driver's license has been taken away. Practical applications: This Brazilian version can be recommended for the assessment of driving anger expression in Brazil among young drivers in view of helping them driver more safely, and in particular to reduce traffic violations.

Feeling Hurt: Revisiting the Relationship Between Social and Physical Pain

Pain overlap theory has generated decades of controversy and still receives considerable research attention. A major advance has been the revelation that social and physical pain activate similar neural regions, providing suggestive evidence of a “piggybacked” alarm system that coevolved to detect social exclusion. Recent developments, however, have brought neural evidence for pain overlap into question. We analyze these developments from a social psychological perspective and identify the need for a reformulated approach. To meet this need, we provide a framework that a priori predicts generalized overlap and specific divergence across a range of biopsychosocial domains. The framework points to a functional pattern for similarities and differences, which can be utilized to generate testable hypotheses so that the field can move forward. To demonstrate the utility and promise of the framework, we identify key hypotheses relating to attention, motivation, and responses to pain, and review research relevant to these hypotheses.

Provocation and target gender as moderators of the relationship between acute alcohol use and female perpetrated aggression

Acute alcohol use appears to exert a small but significant effect on female perpetrated aggression in the laboratory but there has been no effort to evaluate comprehensively the situational moderators of this relationship. This preliminary review was intended to explore the moderating effects of provocation and target gender on alcohol-related aggression among females in this understudied area of research. Moderator analyses were conducted on 14 studies. Despite limitations imposed by the sparsity of laboratory based research on alcohol-related aggression among females, initial results suggest that alcohol may exert stronger effects over female aggression following high (d = 0.25, k = 8, p < .01, 95% CI = 0.10-0.40) rather than low (d = -0.07, k = 6, p = .52, 95% CI = -0.29-0.15) provocation and when targets of aggression are female (d = 0.19, k = 9, p = .01, 95% CI = 0.04-0.34) rather than male (d = -0.06, k = 4, p = .61, 95% CI = -0.30-0.18). Results offer initial insight into situational risk factors pertinent to research and treatment of alcohol-related aggression among females while serving as an impetus for future research in this critical, neglected area of study.

L-Lysine as the Molecule Influencing Selective Brain Activity in Pain-Induced Behavior of Rats

Lysine-rich proteins are some of the most important proteins of neurons and it has become necessary to investigate the possible role of L-lysine as a brain functioning regulator. The purpose of our study is to identify the characteristics and the mechanisms of L-lysine effects on the different types of pain-induced behavior in the stimulation of tail and foot-shock models in 210 adult male Wistar rats. L-lysine was administered in intraperitoneal or intracerebroventricular injections in doses of 0.15-50.0 µg/kg. When a tail is irritated, L-lysine was found to enhance pain sensitivity and affective defense after both intraperitoneal and intracerebroventricular administration. In the case of unavoidable painful irritation of a pair of rats with both types of L-lysine administration, there was no direct correlation of the severity of pain with defensive reactions and outbursts of aggression. This indicates a more complex integration of the activity of brain structures in this situation of animal interaction, which was confirmed by the results of the direct amino acid action on the periventricular brain structures. Our findings show that L-lysine influences the selective brain activity in dependence on the biological significance of pain-induced behavior.

Cognitive behavioral skill-based training program for enhancing anger control among youth

BACKGROUND

Anger expression and its control among youth is a major concern for the health professionals. There is dearth of intervention-based study in Indian context. The present work aims to evolve an intervention module for management of anger among youth in India.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present module has been validated on 100 individuals with inclusion criteria of age from 18 to 25 years and the individuals with dependence on psychoactive drugs and refusal to participate were excluded from the study. The Anger data sheet, Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire, and State Trait Anger Expression Inventory were administered at baseline as well as at 1-month interval after 6 sessions of intervention. The 82 participants completed postassessment and 18 participants were dropouts of the follow-up sessions.

RESULTS

Pre-post cognitive therapy based anger management intervention program showed the difference in the domains of resilience; clinical anger, state and trait anger and anger control in.

CONCLUSIONS

The study implies the need for community-based sensitization for issues related to anger expression and facilitation of approaches to promote adaptive anger control among youth.

Taming the Lion: How Perceived Worth Buffers the Detrimental Influence of Power on Aggression and Conflict

Contrary to conventional wisdom, there is little empirical evidence that elevated power, by default, fuels conflict and aggression. Instead, previous studies have shown that extraneous factors that decrease powerholders' perceived worth, making powerholders feel inferior or disrespected, seem to be necessary to 'unleash' power's dark side and trigger aggression and conflict. However, this past work has largely neglected that power boosts individuals' perceptions of worth, and as such these variables are not independent. The present research sought to address this oversight, thereby providing a more nuanced account of how perceived worth stifles aggression and conflict tendencies in powerholders. Focusing on self-esteem (Study 1) and status (Study 2) as two interrelated facets of perceived worth, we report primary and secondary data indicating that perceived worth acts as buffer and counters aggression as well as more general conflict tendencies in powerholders. By providing evidence for a suppression effect, the present findings go beyond the moderations identified in prior work and demonstrate that perceptions of worth are critical to understanding the link between power on the one hand, and aggression and conflict on the other. We conclude by discussing the social regulatory function of perceived worth in hierarchical relations.

The lone gamer: Social exclusion predicts violent video game preferences and fuels aggressive inclinations in adolescent players

Violent video game playing has been linked to a wide range of negative outcomes, especially in adolescents. In the present research, we focused on a potential determinant of adolescents' willingness to play violent video games: social exclusion. We also tested whether exclusion can predict increased aggressiveness following violent video game playing. In two experiments, we predicted that exclusion could increase adolescents' preferences for violent video games and interact with violent game playing fostering adolescents' aggressive inclinations. In Study 1, 121 adolescents (aged 10-18 years) were randomly assigned to a manipulation of social exclusion. Then, they evaluated the violent content of nine different video games (violent, nonviolent, or prosocial) and reported their willingness to play each presented video game. The results showed that excluded participants expressed a greater willingness to play violent games than nonviolent or prosocial games. No such effect was found for included participants. In Study 2, both inclusionary status and video game contents were manipulated. After a manipulation of inclusionary status, 113 adolescents (aged 11-16 years) were randomly assigned to play either a violent or a nonviolent video game. Then, they were given an opportunity to express their aggressive inclinations toward the excluders. Results showed that excluded participants who played a violent game displayed the highest level of aggressive inclinations than participants who were assigned to the other experimental conditions. Overall, these findings suggest that exclusion increases preferences for violent games and that the combination of exclusion and violent game playing fuels aggressive inclinations.

Interpersonal behavior in anticipation of pain: a naturalistic study of behavioral mimicry prior to surgery

Current and anticipated pain relate to mimicry behavior in divergent ways, which may bear upon the elicitation of social support during the experience of pain.

Introduction:

Social relationships facilitate coping with pain, but research suggests that it may be difficult to galvanize social support during an episode of acute pain.

Objectives:

The current research examined whether social connections are optimized in the anticipation of pain by observing patients' mimicry of an interaction partner prior to surgery. We hypothesized that when controlling for their current experience of pain, patients' anticipation of pain would be associated with greater mimicry of an interaction partner.

Methods:

Sixty-five patients were interviewed in the waiting room of a maxillofacial surgery unit prior to the removal of an impacted wisdom tooth. Patients' spontaneous mimicry of an interviewer was observed. Patients then rated the quality and intensity of their anticipated pain, as well as the intensity of their current pain and their affective distress.

Results:

Anticipated pain, current pain, and affective distress were positively correlated. Current pain was associated with less frequent mimicry of an interaction partner. The zero-order correlation between anticipated pain and mimicry did not reach conventional levels of significance; however, when controlling for current pain, anticipated pain predicted more frequent mimicry of an interaction partner. The relationship between anticipated pain and mimicry was not explained by affective distress.

Conclusion:

This is the first study to demonstrate that anticipated and current pain relate to behavioral mimicry in divergent ways. Further research is needed to investigate whether the current pattern of results generalizes to other interpersonal behaviors that facilitate social bonds.

Association of genetic variations in the serotonin and dopamine systems with aggressive behavior in the Chinese adolescent population: Single- and multiple-risk genetic variants

BACKGROUND

Genetic predisposition is an important factor leading to aggressive behavior. However, the relationship between genetic polymorphisms and aggressive behavior has not been elucidated.

METHODS

We identified candidate genes located in the dopaminergic and serotonin system (DRD3, DRD4, and FEV) that had been previously reported to be associated with aggressive behavior. We investigated 14 tag single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) using a multi-analytic strategy combining logistic regression (LR) and classification and regression tree (CART) to explore higher-order interactions between these SNPs and aggressive behavior in 318 patients and 558 controls.

RESULTS

Both LR and CART analyses suggested that the rs16859448 polymorphism is the strongest individual factor associated with aggressive behavior risk. In CART analysis, individuals carrying the combined genotypes of rs16859448TT/GT-rs11246228CT/TT-rs3773679TT had the highest risk, while rs16859448GG-rs2134655CT had the lowest risk (OR = 5.25, 95% CI: 2.53-10.86).

CONCLUSION

This study adds to the growing evidence on the association of single- and multiple-risk variants in DRD3, DRD4, and FEV with aggressive behavior in Chinese adolescents. However, the aggressive behavior scale used to diagnose aggression in this study did not account for comorbid conditions; therefore, further studies are needed to confirm our observations.

A competitively designed version of the point subtraction aggression paradigm is related to proactive aggressive and psychopathic traits in males

The Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm (PSAP) is a well-validated and frequently applied behavioral paradigm for provocation and quantification of reactive aggressive behavior in laboratory settings. Here, we design and test a newly developed PSAP version in its ability to quantify proactive aggressive behavior. A group of 119 male volunteers was allocated to the conventional PSAP and two other variants of the PSAP. The first PSAP adaptation intended to abet proactive aggression by monetary reward for aggressive actions. In the second variant, a highly competitive situation was created. In addition, two sets of aggression questionnaires, related to proactive and reactive aggressive and psychopathic traits, were used (Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ), Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised (PPI-R)). Our results showed strong positive correlations among RPQ/PPI-R and aggressive behavior only for the new competitive version of the PSAP. In contrast, the scores of these scales showed weak and non-significant correlations with observed aggression in the two PSAP variants. The scores for reactive aggression were not significantly associated with any of the PSAP versions. These data indicate that aggression on the newly developed competitive PSAP design is mainly driven by proactive aggressive mechanisms.

On Being Rejected: A Meta-Analysis of Experimental Research on Rejection

This article presents the first meta-analysis of experimental research on rejection, sampling 88 studies. The results are consistent with a needs account, which states that rejection frustrates basic psychological needs, but not with a numbness account, which states that rejection causes physical and emotional numbness. Rejection moderately lowers mood (d = −0.50) and self-esteem (d = −0.70), but does not decrease arousal or flatten affect. Both belonging (d = 0.69) and control (d = 1.16) are frustrated by rejection. Aggressive responses to rejection, considered paradoxical by some, appear to be due to attempts to gain control; measures that contrast belonging and control (d = −1.17) cause antisocial responding, whereas measures that do not allow for control to be restored cause prosocial responding (d = 1.21). These findings suggest that rejection makes individuals feel bad—ready to act to restore control or belonging—and that they will prioritize restoring control even if it requires being antisocial.

The role of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards in committing violence during combat: A cross-sectional study with former combatants in the DR Congo

It has been postulated that the violent behavior that characterizes armed conflict is reinforced by the possibility of receiving rewards. The present study examined the potential influence of two types of rewards in an ongoing setting of conflict: extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. Former combatants active in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (N = 198) were interviewed and questioned about the way they were recruited, the offenses they committed during combat, their level of perceived intrinsic rewards (i.e., appetitive perception of violence), and the number of received extrinsic rewards during their time in the armed group (e.g., money, extra food, alcohol, or drugs). A moderated multiple regression analysis showed that the number of received extrinsic rewards and the level of intrinsic rewards were significantly positively related to the number of different types of offenses committed. In contrast to our expectations and previous findings, the recruitment type (forced conscription vs. voluntary enlistment) did not moderate this relation. Our findings suggest that both types of rewards play a role in committing violence during combat. We suggest, therefore, that reintegration programs should not only consider the influence of extrinsic rewards, but also need to address the influence of intrinsic rewards to counter violent behavior among former combatants. Aggr. Behav. 43:241-250, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.