Toxic megacolon complicating pseudomembranous enterocolitis

Severe Sepsis Secondary to Toxic Megacolon Revealing an Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Patients with inflammatory bowel disease can present with numerous infectious complications, including intra-abdominal abscess, perforations of the intestine, fistula formation, and the occurrence of septicemia. Toxic megacolon (TM) is a potentially fatal complication of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and is associated with high morbidity and mortality. In this case report, we report a 49-year-old male patient who was admitted to the intensive care unit for the management of severe sepsis that was secondary to an inaugural toxic megacolon complicating a silent inflammatory bowel disease, with a Lichtiger score of 11. Nonresponse to anti-bacterial therapy, noradrenaline, and intravenous corticosteroid therapy required an emergency total colectomy. After surgery, the patient died because of his unresolved septic shock. Correct management of this condition requires an accurate assessment of the patient's history, a correct physical examination, abdominal radiographs, and sigmoid coloscopy, and frequently requires surgery. The indications for surgery in cases of toxic megacolon, massive hemorrhage, perforation, peritonitis, or non-response to medical therapy are the most important ones. Patients with a history of inflammatory bowel disease are particularly prone to infectious complications since therapy for these inflammatory diseases is based on the use of immunosuppressive drugs and frequent abdominal surgeries.

Toxic Megacolon Burdened with COVID-19 Coinfection-Worsening of an Unfavorable Diagnosis: A Single-Center Retrospective Study

INTRODUCTION

This study primarily sought to evaluate the risk factors for toxic megacolon development and treatment outcomes in Clostridium difficile-positive COVID-19 patients, secondarily to determining predictors of survival.

METHODS

During the second COVID-19 wave (May 2020 to May 2021), we identified 645 patients with confirmed COVID-19 infection, including 160 patients with a severe course in the intensive care unit. We selected patients with Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) (31 patients) and patients with toxic megacolon (9 patients) and analyzed possible risk factors.

RESULTS

Patients who developed toxic megacolon had a higher incidence (without statistical significance, due to small sample size) of cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, a higher proportion of them required antibiotic treatment using cephalosporins or penicillins, and there was a higher rate of extracorporeal circulation usage. C-reactive protein (CRP) and interleukin-6 values showed significant differences between the groups (CRP [median 126 mg/L in the non-toxic megacolon cohort and 237 mg/L in the toxic megacolon cohort; p = 0.037] and interleukin-6 [median 252 ng/L in the group without toxic megacolon and 1127 ng/L in those with toxic megacolon; p = 0.016]). As possible predictors of survival, age, presence of chronic venous insufficiency, cardiac disease, mechanical ventilation, and infection with Candida species were significant for increasing the risk of death, while corticosteroid and cephalosporin treatment and current Klebsiella infection decreased this risk.

CONCLUSIONS

More than ever, the COVID-19 pandemic required strong up-to-date treatment recommendations to decrease the rate of serious in-hospital complications. Further studies are required to evaluate the interplay between COVID-19 and CDI/toxic megacolon.

Early Surgical Intervention for Fulminant Pseudomembranous Colitis

The objective of this study of a retrospective case series was to determine factors associated with survival after surgical intervention in pseudomembranous colitis (PMC). The study was conducted at a tertiary care medical center and comprised 36 patients who underwent colectomy for fulminant PMC from 1995 to 2006. Patients including 21 females ranged from 40 to 89 years of age (mean, 70 years). Comorbidities included diabetes (39%), cardiovascular disease (77%), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (47%), and intake of immunosuppressive medications (45%). Seventy-two per cent received antibiotics in the previous 2 months. Only patients with a confirmation of PMC on pathology specimens were included in the study. All patients underwent colectomy. Patients were stratified into two groups: survivors and nonsurvivors. Various clinical factors/parameters used in the management of patients with PMC were studied in these two groups. Survival was correlated with mean white blood cell count (23,000 survivors versus 40,000 nonsurvivors, P < 0.01); multisystem organ failure (16 per cent survivors versus 47 per cent nonsurvivors, P < 0.05); and preoperative pressors (16 per cent survivors versus 47 per cent nonsurvivors, P < 0.05). Overall mortality for the study period was 47 per cent. Mortality rate analysis revealed a lower rate for the more recent years (32 per cent for 2000 to 2006 versus 65 per cent for 1995 to 1999, P < 0.05). In the more recent years, the time elapsing before colectomy was also lower (1.4 days versus 2.5 days, nonsignificant), and patients had less preoperative hemodynamic instability (70 per cent versus 31 per cent, P < 0.03). In one institution, survival after surgery for PMC was found to be associated with a mean white blood cell count (<37,000), nondependence on preoperative vasopressors, and surgical intervention before the onset of hemodynamic instability.

Toxic Megacolon: Background, Pathophysiology, Management Challenges and Solutions

Toxic megacolon (TM) is one of the fatal complications of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) or any infectious etiology of the colon that is characterized by total or partial nonobstructive colonic dilatation and systemic toxicity. It is associated with high morbidity and mortality, and surgical management is necessary for the majority of the cases. An accurate history and physical examination, plain radiographs of the abdomen, sigmoidoscopy, and, most important of all, awareness of the condition facilitate diagnosis in most cases. Operative intervention is warranted when massive hemorrhage, perforation, or peritonitis complicate the clinical scenario or medical therapy fails to control the disease. We sought to review the management challenges of TM and its possible management strategies in this article.

Incidence, features, in-hospital outcomes and predictors of in-hospital mortality associated with toxic megacolon hospitalizations in the United States

Toxic megacolon (TM) is a potentially fatal condition characterized by non-obstructive colonic dilatation and systemic toxicity. It is most commonly caused by inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Limited data for TM are available demonstrating incidence, in-hospital outcomes and predictors of mortality. We sought to investigate incidence, characteristics, mortality and predictors of mortality associated with it. Data were obtained from the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP)'s Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) database from January 2010 through December 2014. An analysis was performed on SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Patients below 18 years were excluded. A mixed-effects logistic regression model was developed to analyze predictors of mortality. Thus, 8139 (weighted) cases of TM were diagnosed between 2010 and 2014. TM is more prevalent in women (56.4%) than in men (43.6%), with a mean age of onset at 62.4 years, affecting whites (79.7%) more than non-whites. The most common reason for hospital admission included IBD (51.6%) followed by septicemia (10.2%) and intestinal infections (4.1%). Mean length of stay was 9.5 days and overall in-hospital mortality was 7.9%. Other complications included surgical resection of the large intestine (11.5%) and bowel obstruction (10.9%). Higher age, neurological disorder, coagulopathy, chronic pulmonary disease, heart failure, and renal failure were associated with greater risk of in-hospital mortality. TM is a serious condition with high in-hospital mortality. Management of TM requires an inter-disciplinary team approach with close monitoring. Patients with positive predictors in our study require special attention to prevent excessive in-hospital mortality.

Clostridium difficile Infection in Children

Clostridium difficile is an important cause of health care associated infections. The epidemiology of C. difficile infection (CDI) in children has changed over the past few decades. There is now a higher incidence in hospitalized children, and there has been an emergence of community-onset infection. A hypervirulent strain, North American pulse type 1, has also developed. Neonates and young infants have high rates of colonization but rarely have symptoms. The well-known risk factor for CDI in children age 2 years or older is antibiotic use. Inflammatory bowel disease and cancer are associated with increased incidence and severity of CDI. Nucleic acid amplification tests are now widely used for diagnosis given their rapid turnover and higher sensitivity and specificity. The treatment for an initial episode and first recurrence is oral metronidazole. Oral vancomycin is reserved for second recurrence or severe cases. A new treatment option, fecal bowel transplant, has been reported to be safe and effective in adults, and studies are now being conducted in children. [Pediatr Ann. 2018;47(9):e359-e365.].

A Surgical Clostridium-Associated Risk of Death Score Predicts Mortality After Colectomy for Clostridium difficile

BACKGROUND

A Clostridium difficile-associated risk of death score was recently developed and validated by using a national cohort of both nonsurgical and surgical patients admitted with C difficile infection. However, risk scores specifically derived from surgical cohorts and designed for patients with C difficile infection are currently unavailable.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to develop a risk of death score for patients with C difficile infection who are being considered for total abdominal colectomy because of the failure of medical therapy.

DESIGN

This is a retrospective cohort study.

SETTINGS

This study was conducted with the use of a national database.

PATIENTS

All patients undergoing total colectomy for C difficile infection were identified in the National Surgical Quality Improvement Program database from 2005 to 2014.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Variables similar to the original scoring system were used in multivariable analyses to determine the risk of 30-day mortality for patients, and a model was constructed to estimate the predicted probability of mortality after surgery.

RESULTS

Of 532 patients who underwent surgery, 32.7% experienced 30-day postoperative mortality. Patient covariates associated with significantly increased mortality included age greater than 80 years (OR 5.5, p = 0.003), need for preoperative mechanical ventilation (OR 3.1, p < 0.001), chronic steroid use (OR 2.9, p < 0.001), underlying cardiopulmonary disease (OR 2.0, p = 0.001), and acute renal failure (OR=1.7, p = 0.03). These and other comorbidities, including hepatic disease, a cancer diagnosis, and both insulin- and noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, were used to construct a model to estimate the predicted probability of mortality, which ranged from 8.0% to 96.1% based on individual comorbidity profiles. These estimates differed substantially when compared with those obtained using the National Surgical Quality Improvement Program risk calculator, which estimated the risk of mortality among surgical patients as being consistently lower.

LIMITATIONS

This study was limited by its retrospective design.

CONCLUSIONS

Our surgical scoring system allows preoperative risk stratification for patients being evaluated for colectomy for C difficile infection, potentially helping to avoid futile surgery. See Video Abstract at http://links.lww.com/DCR/A434.

Update on medical and surgical options for patients with acute severe ulcerative colitis: What is new?

Acute severe ulcerative colitis (UC) is a highly morbid condition that requires both medical and surgical management through the collaboration of gastroenterologists and colorectal surgeons. First line treatment for patients presenting with acute severe UC consists of intravenous steroids, but those who do not respond require escalation of therapy or emergent colectomy. The mortality of emergent colectomy has declined significantly in recent decades, but due to the morbidity of this procedure, second line agents such as cyclosporine and infliximab have been used as salvage therapy in an attempt to avoid emergent surgery. Unfortunately, protracted medical therapy has led to patients presenting for surgery in a poorer state of health leading to poorer post-operative outcomes. In this era of multiple medical modalities available in the treatment of acute severe UC, physicians must consider the advantages and disadvantages of prolonged medical therapy in an attempt to avoid surgery. Colectomy remains a mainstay in the treatment of severe ulcerative colitis not responsive to corticosteroids and rescue therapy, and timely referral for surgery allows for improved post-operative outcomes with lower risk of sepsis and improved patient survival. Options for reconstructive surgery include three-stage ileal pouch-anal anastomosis or a modified two-stage procedure that can be performed either open or laparoscopically. The numerous avenues of medical and surgical therapy have allowed for great advances in the treatment of patients with UC. In this era of options, it is important to maintain a global view, utilize biologic therapy when indicated, and then maintain an appropriate threshold for surgery. The purpose of this review is to summarize the growing number of medical and surgical options available in the treatment of acute, severe UC.

The efficacy of intracolonic vancomycin for severe Clostridium difficile colitis: a case series

Background

Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) unresponsive to the standard treatments of metronidazole and oral vancomycin requires aggressive medical management and possible surgical intervention including colectomy. Intracolonic vancomycin therapy has been reported to be particularly promising in the setting of severe CDI in the presence of ileus. This is a descriptive case series exploring the effect of adjunctive intracolonic vancomycin therapy on the morbidity and mortality in patients with moderate to severe CDI.

Methods

A retrospective chart review was conducted on 696 patients with CDI seen at a single institution. Each patient was assigned a severity score and 127 patients with moderate to severe CDI were identified. We describe the clinical presentation, risk factors and hospital course comparing those that received adjunctive intracolonic vancomycin to those that only received standard therapy.

Results

The group that received adjunctive intracolonic vancomycin had higher rates of toxic megacolon, intensive care unit (ICU) admission, and colectomy, and yet maintained a similar mortality rate as the group that received only standard treatment.

Conclusion

The intracolonic vancomycin group experienced more complications but showed a similar mortality rate to the standard therapy group, suggesting that intracolonic vancomycin may impart a protective effect. This study adds further evidence for the need of a randomized controlled study using intracolonic vancomycin as adjunctive therapy in patients presenting with severe CDI.

Timing and type of surgical treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated disease: a practice management guideline from the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma

BACKGROUND

Clostridium difficile infection is the leading cause of nosocomial diarrhea in the United States; however, few patients will develop fulminant C. difficile-associated disease (CDAD), necessitating an urgent operative intervention. Mortality for patients who require operative intervention is very high, up to 80% in some series. Since there is no consensus in the literature regarding the best operative treatment for this disease, we sought to answer the following:PICO [population, intervention, comparison, and outcome] Question 1: In adult patients with CDAD, does early surgery compared with late surgery, as defined by the need for vasopressors, decrease mortality?PICO Question 2: In adult patients with CDAD, does total abdominal colectomy (TAC) compared with other types of surgical intervention decrease mortality?

METHODS

A subcommittee of the Practice Management Guideline Committee of the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis for the selected questions. RevMan software was used to generate forest plots. Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations methodology was used to rate the quality of the evidence, using GRADEpro software to create evidence tables.

RESULTS

Reduction in mortality was significantly associated with early surgery, with a risk ratio (RR) of 0.5 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.35-0.72). The quality of evidence was rated "moderate." Considering only the first procedure performed, mortality seemed to trend higher for TAC, with an RR of 1.11 (95% CI, 0.69-1.80). Considering only the actual procedure performed, the point estimate switched sides, showing a trend toward decreased mortality with TAC (RR, 0.86; 95% CI, 0.56-1.31). The quality of evidence was rated "very low."

CONCLUSION

We strongly recommend that adult patients with CDAD undergo early surgery, before the development of shock and need for vasopressors. We conditionally recommend total or subtotal colectomy (vs. partial colectomy or other surgery) when the diagnosis of The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is known.

Systematic review and meta-analysis of outcomes following emergency surgery for Clostridium difficile colitis

BACKGROUND

Only a small proportion of patients with severe Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) undergo emergency surgery, the timing and nature of which is unclear. The aim of this study was to describe the operations performed and to identify factors predictive of death following emergency surgery for CDI.

METHODS

A systematic review of published literature was performed for studies comparing survivors and non-survivors of emergency surgery for CDI. Meta-analysis was carried out for 30-day and in-hospital mortality.

RESULTS

Overall 31 studies were included, which presented data on a total of 1433 patients undergoing emergency surgery for CDI. Some 1·1 per cent of all patients with CDI and 29·9 per cent with severe CDI underwent emergency surgery, although rates varied between studies (0·2-7·6 and 2·2-86 per cent respectively). The most commonly performed operation was total colectomy with end ileostomy (89·0 per cent, 1247 of 1401 detailed surgical procedures). When total colectomy with end ileostomy was not performed, reoperation to resect further bowel was needed in 15·9 per cent (20 of 126). Where described, the 30-day mortality rate was 41·3 per cent (160 of 387). Meta-analysis of high-quality studies revealed that the strongest predictors of postoperative death were those relating to preoperative physiological status: preoperative intubation, acute renal failure, multiple organ failure and shock requiring vasopressors.

CONCLUSION

This systematic review supports total colectomy with end ileostomy as the primary surgical treatment for patients with severe CDI; other surgical procedures are associated with high rates of reoperation and mortality. Less extensive surgery may have a role in selected patients with earlier-stage disease.

Clostridium difficile colitis: increasing incidence, risk factors, and outcomes in solid organ transplant recipients

BACKGROUND

Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) is an increasingly important diagnosis in solid organ transplant recipients, with rising incidence and mortality. We describe the incidence, risk factors, and outcomes of colectomy for CDAD after solid organ transplantation.

METHODS

Patients with CDAD were identified from a prospective transplant database. Complicated Clostridium difficile colitis (CCDC) was defined as CDAD associated with graft loss, total colectomy, or death.

RESULTS

From 1999 to 2010, we performed solid organ transplants for 1331 recipients at our institution. The incidence of CDAD was 12.4% (165 patients); it increased from 4.5% (1999) to 21.1% (2005) and finally 9.5% (2010). The peak frequency of CDAD was between 6 and 10 days posttransplantation. Age more than 55 years (hazard ratio [HR]: 1.47, 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.16-1.81), induction with antithymocyte globulin (HR: 1.43, 95% CI=1.075-1.94), and transplant other than kidney alone (liver, heart, pancreas, or combined kidney organ) (HR: 1.41, 95% CI=1.05-1.92) were significant independent risk factors for CDAD. CCDC occurred in 15.8% of CDAD cases. Independent predictors of CCDC were white blood cell count more than 25,000/μL (HR: 1.08, 95% CI=1.025-1.15) and evidence of pancolitis on computed tomography scan (HR: 2.52, 95% CI=1.195-5.35). Six patients with CCDC underwent colectomy with 83% patient survival and 20% graft loss. Of the medically treated patients with CCDC (n=20), the patient survival was 35% with 100% graft loss.

CONCLUSIONS

We have identified significant risk factors for CDAD and predictors of progression to CCDC. Furthermore, we found that colectomy can be performed with excellent survival in selected patients.

Toxic megacolon

Toxic megacolon represents a dreaded complication of mainly inflammatory or infectious conditions of the colon. It is most commonly associated with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), i.e., ulcerative colitis or ileocolonic Crohn's disease. Lately, the epidemiology has shifted toward infectious causes, specifically due to an increase of Clostridium difficile-associated colitis possibly due to the extensive (ab)use of broad-spectrum antibiotics. Other important infectious etiologies include Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, Cytomegalovirus (CMV), rotavirus, Aspergillus, and Entameba. Less frequently, toxic megacolon has been attributed to ischemic colitis, collagenous colitis, or obstructive colorectal cancer. Toxic colonic dilatation may also occur in hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS) caused by enterohemorrhagic or enteroaggregative Escherichia coli O157 (EHEC, EAEC, or EAHEC). The pathophysiological mechanisms leading to toxic colonic dilatation are incompletely understood. The main characteristics of toxic megacolon are signs of systemic toxicity and severe colonic distension. Diagnosis is made by clinical evaluation for systemic toxicity and imaging studies depicting colonic dilatation. Plain abdominal imaging is still the most established radiological instrument. However, computed tomography scanning and transabdominal intestinal ultrasound are promising alternatives that add additional information. Management of toxic megacolon is an interdisciplinary task that requires close interaction of gastroenterologists and surgeons from the very beginning. The optimal timing of surgery for toxic megacolon can be challenging. Here we review the latest data on the pathogenesis, clinical presentation, laboratory, and imaging modalities and provide algorithms for an evidence-based diagnostic and therapeutic approach.

Diverting loop ileostomy and colonic lavage: an alternative to total abdominal colectomy for the treatment of severe, complicated Clostridium difficile associated disease

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether a minimally invasive, colon-preserving approach could serve as an alternative to total colectomy in the treatment of severe, complicated Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD).

BACKGROUND

C. difficile is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Most cases will respond to antibiotic therapy, but 3% to 10% of patients progress to a severe, complicated, or "fulminant" state of life-threatening systemic toxicity. Although the advocated surgical treatment of total abdominal colectomy with end ileostomy improves survival in severe, complicated CDAD, outcomes remain poor with associated mortality rates ranging from 35% to 80%.

METHODS

All patients who were diagnosed with severe, complicated ("fulminant") CDAD and were treated at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center or VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System between June 2009 and January 2011 were treated with this novel approach. The surgical approach involved creation of a loop ileostomy, intraoperative colonic lavage with warmed polyethylene glycol 3350/electrolyte solution via the ileostomy and postoperative antegrade instillation of vancomycin flushes via the ileostomy. The primary end point for the study was resolution of CDAD. The matching number of patients treated with colectomy for CDAD preceding the initiation of this current treatment strategy was analyzed for historical comparison.

RESULTS

Forty-two patients were treated during this time period. There was no significant difference in age, sex, pharmacologic immunosuppression, and Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation-II scores between our current cohort and historical controls. The operation was accomplished laparoscopically in 35 patients (83%). This treatment strategy resulted in reduced mortality compared to our historical population (19% vs 50%; odds ratio, 0.24; P = 0.006). Preservation of the colon was achieved in 39 of 42 patients (93%).

CONCLUSIONS

Loop ileostomy and colonic lavage are an alternative to colectomy in the treatment of severe, complicated CDAD resulting in reduced morbidity and preservation of the colon.

Emergency colectomy for fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis: Striking the right balance

The number of reported cases of Clostridium difficile (CD) infections has increased markedly worldwide. CD causes a spectrum of clinical syndromes, ranging from mild diarrhea to a very severe illness in the form of pseudomembranous colitis (PMC), toxic megacolon, leading to colonic perforation, peritonitis, and even death. In today's practice, toxic megacolon is more often caused by pseudomembranous colitis than ulcerative colitis. There is urgent need to establish clear guidelines about how and when to refer patients with fulminant CD colitis to surgeons. Furthermore, there is no strict protocol for the timing of surgical intervention. The aim of this review is to review the available evidence about the criteria for referral to surgeons and timing for surgery. Medline search was carried out for articles published on fulminant CD colitis with emergency colectomy from 1966 to 2010. There were no prospective randomized trails. All retrospective cohort and case control studies were included. We excluded case reports, letters, and studies with less than five patients. Our search showed that patients with confirmed or suspected CD who failed to respond to maximum medical therapy and develop three of the following should be referral for surgical assessment: abdominal pain, abdominal distension, localized tenderness, pyrexia >38°C, and tachycardia >100 beats per minute. In addition to the above, if the patient is above 65 years old and develops four of the following, they should be considered for an emergency colectomy: WBC >16 × 10⁹/l, lactate >2.2 mmol/l, albumin <30 g/l, blood pressure <90 mm Hg, CT/endoscopy evidence of severe colitis in spite of maximum anti-clostridial therapy. Colectomy still carries a high mortality rate; however, timely surgical intervention in fulminant CD colitis (FCDC) prevents many deaths in selected cases. In the absence of published prospective multicenter trial, we suggest that our criteria may enhance early diagnosis and consideration of early referral for surgery. Ultimately, this may reduce the significant morbidity and mortality associated with FCDC.

Toxic megacolon associated Clostridium difficile colitis

Toxic megacolon is a severe complication of Clostridium difficile (C. difficile) colitis. As the prevalence of C. difficile colitis increases and treatments become more refractory, clinicians will encounter more patients with C. difficile associated toxic megacolon in the future. Here, we review a case of toxic megacolon secondary to C. difficile colitis and review the current literature on diagnosis and management. We identify both clinical and radiologic criteria for diagnosis and discuss both medical and surgical options for management. Ultimately, we recommend using the Jalen criteria in conjunction with daily abdominal radiographs to help establish the diagnosis of toxic megacolon and to make appropriate treatment recommendations. Aggressive medical management using supportive measures and antibiotics should remain the mainstay of treatment. Surgical intervention should be considered if the patient does not clinically improve within 2-3 d of initial treatment.

Clostridium difficile colitis

Clostridium difficile enterocolitis is endemic in most modern hospitals. The spectrum of clinical presentation varies from the asymptomatic carrier state to fulminant colitis with toxic megacolon and perforation. Highly toxigenic and lethal strains of C. difficile have emerged worldwide. Medical treatment consists of discontinuing the precipitating antibiotic, supportive measures and bowel rest, and antibiotic treatment with metronidazole or vancomycin. Surgical treatment may be necessary in cases of fulminant disease. Subtotal colectomy with end ileostomy is the operation of choice.

Surgical aspects of fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis

BACKGROUND

Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD) is responsible for the majority of nosocomial diarrhea, and fulminant C difficile colitis can have mortality upwards of 80%. Early identification and treatment of fulminant C difficile colitis is critical to patient care, but timing of surgical intervention remains difficult. This review summarizes the epidemiology, predictors of development, and management of fulminant C difficile colitis.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted between January 1989 and May 2009 using the keywords "clostridium difficile colitis" or "fulminant clostridium difficile colitis" and "surgery." Articles not in English, those not involving human subjects, and case reports were excluded.

CONCLUSION

Early diagnosis and treatment with subtotal colectomy and end ileostomy is critical in reducing the mortality associated with fulminant colitis. Patients who have a history of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), recent surgery, prior treatment with intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), vasopressor requirements, leukocytosis, or increased lactate should have early surgical consultation and operative intervention.

Risk factors for mortality following emergency colectomy for fulminant Clostridium difficile infection

PURPOSE

This study evaluated risk factors for mortality after emergency colectomy for fulminant Clostridium difficile infection.

METHODS

Retrospective study of 130 cases of Clostridium difficile infection that required a colectomy between 1994 and 2007 in four hospitals of Quebec, Canada. Primary outcome was 30-day mortality.

RESULTS

Twenty-five cases underwent colectomy in 1994 to 2002, 41 in 2003, 40 in 2004, and 24 in 2005 to 2007. Common indications were septic shock (41 percent) and nonresponse to medical treatment (39 percent). Overall, 30-day mortality was 37 percent. Mortality increased with age but was not influenced by comorbidities burden. Mortality correlated with preoperative lactate (< or =2.1 mmol/L: 26 percent; 2.2-4.9 mmol/L: 52 percent; > or =5.0 mmol/L: 75 percent, P < 0.001), leukocytosis (<20.0 x 10(9)/L: 32 percent; 20.0-49.9 x 10(9)/L: 33 percent; > or =50.0 x 10(9)/L: 73 percent, P = 0.008), albumin (> or =25 g/L: 19 percent; 15-24 g/L: 38 percent; <15 g/L: 52 percent, P = 0.04) and renal failure. In multivariate analysis, risk factors for mortality were age (per year, adjusted odds ratio: 1.03, 95 percent confidence interval: 1.00-1.06), preoperative lactate greater than or equal to 5.0 mmol/L (adjusted odds ratio: 10.32, 95 percent confidence interval: 2.59-41.1), leukocytosis greater than or equal to 50.0 x10(9)/L (adjusted odds ratio: 3.68, 95 percent confidence interval: 0.92-14.8) and albumin less than 15 g/L (adjusted odds ratio, 6.57, 95 percent confidence interval: 1.31-33.1).

CONCLUSIONS

Incidence of Clostridium difficile infection-related emergency colectomies increased 20-fold during the epidemic. Postoperative mortality can be predicted by simple laboratory parameters. Three-fourths of patients with leukocytosis greater or equal to 50.0 x10(9)/L or lactate greater or equal to 5.0 mmol/L died. When possible, emergency colectomy should be performed earlier.

The identification and treatment of toxic megacolon secondary to pseudomembranous colitis

Toxic megacolon is an infrequently occurring, potentially life-threatening complication of pseudomembranous colitis. Although toxic megacolon may be considered rare, incidence is expected to increase because of the rapidly increased prevalence of pseudomembranous colitis. This article discusses the pathophysiology, clinical manifestation, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for toxic megacolon secondary to pseudomembranous colitis. Critical care nurses should be aware of the disease to intervene early and increase the chance of the patient's survival.

Clinical review of the management of fulminant clostridium difficile infection

BACKGROUND

Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) is a frequent cause of morbidity and mortality among elderly hospitalized patients. A small but increasing number of patients have developed fulminant CDI, and a significant number of these patients require emergency colectomy. In this review, we discuss the risk factors, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of fulminant CDI.

DATA SOURCES

A literature search (Medline, Embase, Cochrane Library, Biosis, Science Citation Index, Ovid Journals) was performed from the period between January 1980 and June 2008 using the key words "Clostridium difficile,""pseudomembranous enterocolitis,""colectomy,""acute abdomen,""antibiotic-associated diarrhea," or "fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis." Articles not in English or not related to human subjects were excluded. For this review, we analyzed the articles identified in our original search and those articles cited in the original review articles. No randomized trials were found on the surgical management of fulminant CDI and only retrospective studies with a minimum of five patients were used in the review. With respect to medical treatment, we based our review on guideline articles, systematic reviews, and available randomized trials.

CONCLUSION

Both the incidence and severity of CDI are increasing. Fulminant CDI is underappreciated as a life-threatening disease because of a lack of awareness of its severity and its nonspecific clinical syndrome. Early diagnosis and treatment are essential for a good outcome, and early surgical intervention should be used in patients who are unresponsive to medical therapy. The surgical procedure of choice is a total abdominal colectomy with end ileostomy, although the mortality rate remains high.

Clostridium difficile and inflammatory bowel disease

Clostridium difficile colitis has doubled in North America over the past 5 years and recent reports have demonstrated an increase in incidence and severity of these infections in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD; Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis). Studies from single institutions as well as trends identified in nationwide inpatient databases have shown that IBD patients with concomitant C. difficile infection experience increased morbidity and mortality. Results from our center have shown that over half of C. difficile-infected IBD patients will require hospitalization and the colectomy rate may approach 20%. Because C. difficile colitis will both mimic and precipitate an IBD flare, it is essential that clinicians be vigilant to identify and address this infectious complication, as empiric treatment with corticosteroids without appropriate antibiotics may precipitate deterioration. The majority of IBD patients appear to contract C. difficile as outpatients, and a prior history of colitis appears to be the most significant risk factor for acquiring this infection. In addition to C. difficile colitis, IBD patients are now known to be at risk for C. difficile enteritis as well as infections in reconstructed ileoanal pouches. An additional challenge facing C. difficile infections in IBD patients is the decreased efficacy of metronidazole, and the need for oral vancomycin in patients requiring hospitalization. In this review we summarize the present knowledge regarding C. difficile infection in the setting of IBD, including unique clinical scenarios facing IBD patients, diagnostic algorithms, and treatment approaches.

[Diarrhoea caused by Clostridium difficile in patients with postoperative subhepatic abscess]

BACKGROUND

Toxigenic strains of Clostridium difficile in the majority of cases cause disease of the intestinal tract of hospitalized patients. For a long time, Clostridium difficile was considered to produce both types of toxins (A+/B+ strain), however, the investigations conducted in the last ten years point to the existence of clinically significant isolates which produce only toxin B, i. e. toxin A negative/toxin B positive (A-/B+ strain) Clostridium difficile.

CASE REPORT

We presented the case of a patient admitted to the Surgery Clinic, Clinical Center Nis due to the presence of calculus in the ductus choledochus. Twenty-four hours after the surgical intervention for calculus removal, the first signs of the operative wound infection began to appear. In the course of infection treatment, different antibiotics were administered (cefuroxine, ciprofloxacin, vancomycin, imipenem). After making etiological microbiological diagnosis and application of antibiotics according to antibiogram results, the signs of the operative wound infection began to withdraw, but the patient reported the abdominal pain and liquid stools with traces of blood (up to 17 stools per day). By microbiological examination, Clostridium diffidile was cultivated and the presence of toxin B was detected in the stool samples. The patient was sent to the Clinic for Infectious Diseases, where the causal therapy of mitronidazol was administered. Liquid and electrolytes were made up by substitution therapy. After the eight-day-treatment, the patient felt much better, and diarrheas stopped on the 10th day of the therapy application.

CONCLUSION

Our results have shown that toxingen strains Clostridium difficile are present in our country so this bacterium sort have to be considered in differential causal diagnosis of diarrhoea syndrome. Considering that it can cause difficult form of the disease, it is an obligation to establish the presence of some toxins of Clostridium difficile in stool samples of patients and/or production of some toxins in liquid culturate of isolates to provide data for the presence of strains which produce only toxin B.

Defining surgical therapy for pseudomembranous colitis with toxic megacolon

BACKGROUND

Pseudomembranous colitis has increased in incidence and severity over the past 10 years. Toxic megacolon is a rare but reported presentation of severe pseudomembranous colitis. This article reviews the reported cases of Clostridium difficile with toxic megacolon in the literature and introduces an additional case that underscores the importance of early diagnosis in guiding appropriate therapy.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was performed to identify previous reports of pseudomembranous colitis presenting with toxic megacolon, and the outcomes of each of these cases was analyzed. The review was focused on atypical presentations in immunocompromised patients.

RESULTS

Seventeen cases of C. difficile colitis presenting as toxic megacolon were identified. The overall mortality rate was 50% (9/18). Fifteen patients underwent surgery with an associated mortality rate of 50%. Thirteen patients had a subtotal colectomy. Seven of the patients (39%) were taking immunosuppressant medications, and 5 (28%) patients presented with atypical symptoms. Three (76%) of those were immunosuppressed. In several cases, failure to make an early diagnosis of C. difficile colitis resulted in a worse outcome because appropriate therapy was delayed.

CONCLUSIONS

Toxic megacolon is well-established as an unusual presentation of C. difficile colitis. These patients are less likely to present with typical symptoms such as diarrhea or typical risk factors like recent administration of antibiotics, so diagnosis can be a challenge. A patient presenting with toxic megacolon without a history of inflammatory bowel disease should be assumed to have C. difficile colitis until proven otherwise, and medical or surgical therapy administered accordingly.

Clostridium difficile: recent epidemiologic findings and advances in therapy

Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD) has become an important public health problem. The causative organism is acquired by the oral route from an environmental source or by contact with an infected person or a health care worker who serves as a vector. Disruption of the bowel microflora, generally by antibiotics, creates an environment that allows C. difficile to proliferate. Organisms produce toxins A and B, which cause intense inflammation of the colonic mucosa. The syndrome that results includes severe diarrhea, fever, abdominal pain, and leukocytosis. A new strain of C. difficile has become prevalent in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. Identified by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), this strain is called North America PFGE type 1, abbreviated as NAP-1. Clostridium difficile NAP-1 characteristically generates large amounts of toxins A and B, as well as an additional binary toxin and is associated with enhanced morbidity and a poor response to antibiotic therapy. Mild cases of CDAD may respond to cessation of antibiotic therapy, perhaps related to antibody production by the infected person, but most infected persons require antimicrobial therapy. Vancomycin has been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration for treatment of CDAD, but reluctance to use this antibiotic in the hospital setting has led to reliance on metronidazole as first-line therapy. Recent studies show a high rate of failure, due either to infection by NAP-1 or to the presence, in hospitals, of older and sicker adults who have been treated with many broad-spectrum antibiotics. Nitazoxanide, bacitracin, teicoplanin, and fusidic acid are additional agents that have published efficacy for this indication in humans. Rifaximin and PAR-101 are under investigation. Other therapies, including polymers that bind C. difficile toxin and monoclonal antibodies to toxins, and preventive measures such as toxoid vaccines are also under study.

Clostridium difficile-associated disease: changing epidemiology and implications for management

Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD) is increasingly being reported in many regions throughout the world. The reasons for this are unknown, are likely to be multifactorial, and are the subject of several current investigations. In addition to the upsurge in frequency of CDAD, an increased rate of relapse/recurrence, disease severity and refractoriness to traditional treatment have also been noted. Moreover, severe disease has been reported in non-traditional hosts (e.g. younger age, seemingly healthy, non-institutionalised individuals residing in the community, and some without apparent antimicrobial exposure). A previously uncommon and more virulent strain of C. difficile has been reported at the centre of multiple transcontinental outbreaks. The appearance of this more virulent strain, in association with certain environmental and antimicrobial exposure factors, may be combining to create the 'perfect storm'. It is human nature to be reactive; however, the successful control of C. difficile will require healthcare systems (including administrators, and leadership within several departments such as environmental services, infection control, infectious diseases, gastroenterology, surgery, microbiology and nursing), clinicians, long-term care and rehabilitation facilities, and patients themselves to be proactive in a collaborative effort. Guidelines for the management of CDAD were last published over a decade ago, with the next iteration due in the fall (autumn) of 2007. Several newer therapies are under investigation but it is unclear whether they will be superior to current treatment options.

Impact of emergency colectomy on survival of patients with fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis during an epidemic caused by a hypervirulent strain

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether emergency colectomy reduces mortality in patients with fulminant Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD), and to identify subgroups of patients more likely to benefit from the procedure.

SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA

Many hospitals in Quebec, Canada, have noted since 2003 a dramatic increase in CDAD incidence and in the proportion of cases severe enough to require intensive care unit (ICU) admission. The decision to perform an emergency colectomy remains largely empirical.

METHODS

Retrospective observational cohort study of 165 cases of CDAD that required ICU admission or prolongation of ICU stay between January 2003 and June 2005 in 2 tertiary care hospitals of Quebec. Multivariate analysis was performed through logistic regression; adjusted odds ratios (AOR) and their 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated. The primary outcome was mortality within 30 days of ICU admission.

RESULTS

Eighty-seven (53%) cases resulted in death within 30 days of ICU admission, almost half (38 of 87, 44%) within 48 hours of ICU admission. The independent predictors of 30-day mortality were: leukocytosis >or=50 x 10(9)/L (AOR, 18.6; 95% CI, 3.7-94.7), lactate >or=5 mmol/L (AOR, 12.4; 95% CI, 2.4-63.7), age >or=75 years (AOR, 6.5; 95% CI, 1.7-24.3), immunosuppression (AOR, 7.9; 95% CI, 2.3-27.2) and shock requiring vasopressors (AOR, 3.4; 95% CI, 1.3-8.7). After adjustment for these confounders, patients who had an emergency colectomy were less likely to die (AOR, 0.22; 95% CI, 0.07-0.67, P = 0.008) than those treated medically. Colectomy seemed more beneficial in patients aged 65 years or more, in those immunocompetent, those with a leukocytosis >or=20 x 10(9)/L or lactate between 2.2 and 4.9 mmol/L.

CONCLUSION

Emergency colectomy reduces mortality in some patients with fulminant CDAD.

Antimicrobial therapy of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea

Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) is the most common etiologically-defined cause of hospital-acquired diarrhea. Caused by the toxins of certain strains of C difficile, CDAD represents a growing concern, with epidemic outbreaks in some hospitals where very aggressive and difficult-to-treat strains have recently been found. Incidence of CDAD varies ordinarily between 1 to 10 in every 1,000 admissions. Evidence shows that CDAD increases morbidity, length of stay, and costs. This article described the clinical manifestations of CDAD, related risk factors, considerations for confirming CDAD, antimicrobial and non-antimicrobial treatment of CDAD, and issues related to relapses. The article concludes with a discussion of recent epidemic outbreaks involving CDAD.

An update on diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of Clostridium difficile-associated disease

Clostridium difficile is an important cause of nosocomial morbidity and mortality and is implicated in recent epidemics. Data support the treatment of colitis with oral metronidazole in a dose of 1.0 to 1.5 g/d, with oral vancomycin as a second-line agent, not because its efficacy is questioned but because of environmental concerns. Nitazoxanide and other drugs are currently under intense study as alternatives. Treatment of asymptomatic patients is not recommended. Current management strategies appear to be increasingly ineffective, especially for patients who experience multiple recurrences. Biotherapy and vaccination are currently being explored as treatment options for patients who have recurrent disease. Greater attention should be paid to hospital infection control policies and restriction of broad-spectrum antibiotics.

Aetiology and surgical management of toxic megacolon

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this article is to review the surgical management and outcome of toxic megacolon and to update the aetiology of toxic megacolon.

PATIENTS AND METHOD

A retrospective chart review of three academic colorectal surgery units was undertaken. Over a period of 20 years, 70 patients with surgically managed toxic megacolon were identified: 32 men and 38 women, median age 63 years (range, 23-87 years).

RESULTS

In 33 (48%) patients the main cause of toxic megacolon was inflammatory bowel disease. Thirty-seven (52%) patients had toxic megacolon of different aetiology. Sixty-three patients underwent colonic resection: 49 (70%) subtotal colectomies and 14 (20%) total colectomies, including 4 (6%) proctocolectomies. Seven (10%) patients had decompression (n=3) or faecal diversion (n=4) only. Forty-four of the resected patients underwent a Hartmann's procedure and an ileostomy; 13 (19%) patients had primary anastomoses, 11 (16%) ileorectal anastomoses (IRA) and 2 (3%) patients had ileal pouch-anal anastomosis (IPAA). Twenty-six (37%) patients subsequently had continuity restored. Total surgical complication rate was 19% (n=13), 8% (n=4) in patients treated with subtotal colectomy, 21% (n=3) in patients treated with total proctocolectomy and 86% (n=6) in patients treated with either decompression or diversion. The total mortality rate was 16% (n=11).

CONCLUSIONS

Toxic colitis complicated by toxic megacolon can occur after various diseases of the colon and remains a life-threatening disorder associated with a significant risk of postoperative complications. Subtotal colectomy with ileostomy remains the procedure of choice. Surgical colonic decompression with faecal diversion alone is associated with a high rate of complications.

Treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated disease: old therapies and new strategies

Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD) causes substantial morbidity and mortality. The pathogenesis is multifactorial, involving altered bowel flora, production of toxins, and impaired host immunity, often in a nosocomial setting. Current guidelines recommend treatment with metronidazole; vancomycin is a second-line agent because of its potential effect on the hospital environment. We present the data that led to these recommendations and explore other therapeutic options, including antimicrobials, antibody to toxin A, probiotics, and vaccines. Treatment of CDAD has increasingly been associated with failure and recurrence. Recurrent disease may reflect relapse of infection due to the original infecting organism or infection by a new strain. Poor antibody responses to C difficile toxins have a permissive role in recurrent infection. Hospital infection control and pertinent use of antibiotics can limit the spread of CDAD. A vaccine directed against C difficile toxin may eventually offer a solution to the CDAD problem.

The international sepsis forum consensus conference on definitions of infection in the intensive care unit

OBJECTIVE

To develop definitions of infection that can be used in clinical trials in patients with sepsis.

CONTEXT

Infection is a key component of the definition of sepsis, yet there is currently no agreement on the definitions that should be used to identify specific infections in patients with sepsis. Agreeing on a set of valid definitions that can be easily implemented as part of a clinical trial protocol would facilitate patient selection, help classify patients into prospectively defined infection categories, and therefore greatly reduce variability between treatment groups.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Experts in infectious diseases, clinical microbiology, and critical care medicine were recruited and allocated specific infection sites. They carried out a systematic literature review and used this, and their own experience, to prepare a draft definition. At a subsequent consensus conference, rapporteurs presented the draft definitions, and these were then refined and improved during discussion. Modifications were circulated electronically and subsequently agreed upon as part of an iterative process until consensus was reached.

RESULT

Consensus definitions of infection were developed for the six most frequent causes of infections in septic patients: pneumonia, bloodstream infections (including infective endocarditis), intravascular catheter-related sepsis, intra-abdominal infections, urosepsis, and surgical wound infections.

CONCLUSIONS

We have described standardized definitions of the common sites of infection associated with sepsis in critically ill patients. Use of these definitions in clinical trials should help improve the quality of clinical research in this field.

Alternative treatments for Clostridium difficile disease: what really works?

Vancomycin and metronidazole have been used for treating Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD) for the past 25 years, but approximately 20 % of patients develop recurrent disease. The increasing incidence of nosocomial outbreaks, cases of recurrent CDAD and other complications (toxic megacolon, ileus, sepsis) has fuelled the search for different types of treatments. As the understanding of the pathogenesis of this disease has matured, newer treatment strategies that take advantage of these mechanisms have been developed. This review will describe such treatments and examine the evidence for each strategy.

Colostomy with vancomycin administration as an effective treatment for toxic megacolon associated with fulminant pseudomembranous colitis: a case report

We report a case of toxic megacolon associated with fulminant pseudomembranous colitis. A 72-year-old woman was admitted with severe dehydration and shock. Computed tomography showed evidence of diffuse thickening of the colonic wall, colonic dilatation and ascites. She underwent transverse colostomy and received postoperative vancomycin, both orally and by administration from the stoma. Her clinical situation improved dramatically following surgery. When a patient is unable to tolerate subtotal colectomy and ileostomy because of a severe overall condition, temporary colostomy followed by administration of vancomycin through the stoma is recommended.

A new look at toxic megacolon: an update and review of incidence, etiology, pathogenesis, and management

Toxic megacolon (TM) is an infrequent but devastating complication of colitis. Numerous forms of colonic inflammation can give rise to TM but the majority occur in individuals with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Recently there has been a marked increase in the number of reports of TM associated with pseudomembranous colitis. Because of the associated high morbidity and mortality, early recognition and management of TM is of paramount importance. The mechanisms involved in development of TM are not clearly delineated, but chemical mediators such as nitric oxide and interleukins may play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis. New evidence suggests that TM and its associated morbidity may be predicted by the extent of small bowel and gastric distension in patients with colitis. CT scanning may also play an important role the management of TM, in that it may be the only noninvasive mode to detect subclinical perforations and abscesses. Management involves close medical attention, supportive care, and treatment of the underlying colitis. Possible exacerbating factors such as narcotic and anticholinergic medications must be withdrawn, and colonic decompression via tube drainage or positional techniques must be considered. Signs of progression or complications of the disease must be treated aggressively with surgical intervention, as delay is associated with even greater risk of mortality.

Fulminant Clostridium difficile: an underappreciated and increasing cause of death and complications

OBJECTIVE

To review the epidemiology and characteristics of patients who died or underwent colectomy secondary to fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis.

SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA

In patients with C. difficile colitis, a progressive, systemic inflammatory state may develop that is unresponsive to medical therapy; it may progress to colectomy or death.

METHODS

The authors reviewed 2,334 hospitalized patients with C. difficile colitis from January 1989 to December 2000. Sixty-four patients died or underwent colectomy for pathologically proven C. difficile colitis.

RESULTS

In 2000, the incidence of C. difficile colitis in hospitalized patients increased from a baseline of 0.68% to 1.2%, and the incidence of patients with C. difficile colitis in whom life-threatening symptoms developed increased from 1.6% to 3.2%. Forty-four patients required a colectomy and 20 others died directly from C. difficile colitis. Twenty-two percent had a prior history of C. difficile colitis. A recent surgical procedure and immunosuppression were common predisposing conditions. Lung transplant patients were 46 times more likely to have C. difficile colitis and eight times more likely to have severe disease. Abdominal computed tomography scan correctly diagnosed all patients, whereas 12.5% of toxin assays and 10% of endoscopies were falsely negative. Patients undergoing colectomy for C. difficile colitis had an overall death rate of 57%. Significant predictors of death after colectomy were preoperative vasopressor requirements and age.

CONCLUSIONS

C. difficile colitis is a significant and increasing cause of death. Surgical treatment of C. difficile colitis has a high death rate once the fulminant expression of the disease is present.

Toxic megacolon: role of CT in evaluation and detection of complications

The purpose of this study is to determine the role of CT in the evaluation and in detecting complications in patients with toxic megacolon. A retrospective analysis of CT findings of 18 consecutive patients with toxic megacolon was performed. Underlying etiology included 12 patients with pseudomembranous colitis (PC), four patients with ulcerative colitis and two patients with cytomegalovirus colitis. Eleven patients were HIV+. CT features, correlation with severity of disease and development of complications were analyzed. Colonic dilatation with intraluminal air and/or fluid with a distorted colonic contour or an ahaustral pattern was seen in all patients. In four patients (22%), CT depicted complications-two colonic perforations and two septic thrombosis of the portal system. Six patients died (33%), three of whom had the above complications. The presence and degree of submucosal edema (accordion sign, target sign), wall thickening, degree of dilatation, nodular contour and ascites did not correlate with clinical outcome. Two thirds of patients with toxic megacolon had PC as the underlying etiology. CT was helpful in depicting diffuse colitis, and it was instrumental in detecting life-threatening abdominal complications, contributing to the management of these patients. CT abnormalities cannot be used to predict the clinical outcome unless complications develop.

Treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis

Treatment of C. difficile diarrhea with metronidazole or vancomycin is highly effective at relieving symptoms. The high rate of diarrhea recurrence is concerning, but fortunately most patients respond to a second course of treatment. The problem of vancomycin resistance in hospital organisms has markedly reduced usage of this agent as a first-line treatment for C. difficile diarrhea, leaving metronidazole as the mainstay of treatment in the United States where teicoplanin and fusidic acid are not marketed. It is likely that any new antimicrobial agent used to treat C. difficile will be similarly plagued by a high rate of recurrence, presumably incurred as a result of disruption of normal bowel flora. There is a need for improved treatment and prevention of this increasingly frequent and debilitating nosocomial infection. Treatments that utilize passive antibodies, immunization, nontoxigenic C. difficile, or other forms of biotherapy may hold the key to improved treatment and prevention of C. difficile disease in the future. In the meantime, it behooves all practitioners to use antimicrobials judiciously in order to prevent as many cases of C. difficile diarrhea as possible.

Clinical evaluation and management of acute severe colitis

This review concentrates on the clinical evaluation, imaging, therapy, and prognostic factors in acute severe colitis of idiopathic as well as infectious origin. Older concepts as well as more recent are critically scrutinized.