Mechanisms of gas exchange in bird lungs

A critical assessment of the cellular defences of the avian respiratory system: are birds in general and poultry in particular relatively more susceptible to pulmonary infections/afflictions?

In commercial poultry farming, respiratory diseases cause high morbidities and mortalities, begetting colossal economic losses. Without empirical evidence, early observations led to the supposition that birds in general, and poultry in particular, have weak innate and adaptive pulmonary defences and are therefore highly susceptible to injury by pathogens. Recent findings have, however, shown that birds possess notably efficient pulmonary defences that include: (i) a structurally complex three-tiered airway arrangement with aerodynamically intricate air-flow dynamics that provide efficient filtration of inhaled air; (ii) a specialised airway mucosal lining that comprises air-filtering (ciliated) cells and various resident phagocytic cells such as surface and tissue macrophages, dendritic cells and lymphocytes; (iii) an exceptionally efficient mucociliary escalator system that efficiently removes trapped foreign agents; (iv) phagocytotic atrial and infundibular epithelial cells; (v) phagocytically competent surface macrophages that destroy pathogens and injurious particulates; (vi) pulmonary intravascular macrophages that protect the lung from the vascular side; and (vii) proficiently phagocytic pulmonary extravasated erythrocytes. Additionally, the avian respiratory system rapidly translocates phagocytic cells onto the respiratory surface, ostensibly from the subepithelial space and the circulatory system: the mobilised cells complement the surface macrophages in destroying foreign agents. Further studies are needed to determine whether the posited weak defence of the avian respiratory system is a global avian feature or is exclusive to poultry. This review argues that any inadequacies of pulmonary defences in poultry may have derived from exacting genetic manipulation(s) for traits such as rapid weight gain from efficient conversion of food into meat and eggs and the harsh environmental conditions and severe husbandry operations in modern poultry farming. To reduce pulmonary diseases and their severity, greater effort must be directed at establishment of optimal poultry housing conditions and use of more humane husbandry practices.

Perspectives on the Structure and Function of the Avian Respiratory System: Functional Efficiency Built on Structural Complexity

Among the air-breathing vertebrates, regarding respiratory efficiency, the avian respiratory system rests at the evolutionary zenith. Structurally, it is separated into a lung that serves as a gas exchanger and air sacs that mechanically ventilate the lung continuously and unidirectionally in a caudocranial direction. Largely avascular, the air sacs are delicate, transparent, compliant and capacious air-filled spaces that are not meaningfully involved in gas exchange. The avian lungs are deeply and firmly attached to the vertebrae and the ribs on the dorsolateral aspects, rendering them practically rigid and inflexible. The attachment of the lung to the body wall allowed extreme subdivision of the exchange tissue into minuscule and stable terminal respiratory units, the air capillaries. The process generated a large respiratory surface area in small lungs with low volume density of gas exchange tissue. For the respiratory structures, invariably, thin blood-gas barrier, large respiratory surface area and large pulmonary capillary blood volume are the foremost adaptive structural features that confer large total pulmonary morphometric diffusing capacities of O2. At parabronchial level, the construction and the arrangement of the airway- and the vascular components of the avian lung determine the delivery, the presentation and the exposure of inspired air to capillary blood across the blood-gas barrier. In the avian lung, crosscurrent-, countercurrent- and multicapillary serial arterialization systems that stem from the organization of the structural parts of the lung promote gas exchange. The exceptional respiratory efficiency of the avian respiratory system stems from synergy of morphological properties and physiological processes, means by which O2 uptake is optimized and high metabolic states and capacities supported. Given that among the extant animal taxa insects, birds and bats (which accomplished volancy chronologically in that order) possess structurally much different respiratory systems, the avian respiratory system was by no means a prerequisite for evolution of powered flight but was but one of the adaptive solutions to realization of an exceptionally efficient mode of locomotion.

A histological and immunohistochemical study on the parabronchial epithelium of the domestic fowl's (Gallus gallus domesticus) lung with special reference to its scanning and transmission electron microscopic characteristics

The current study was designed to give complete histo-and immunohistochemical features of the parabronchial epithelium of domestic fowl's (Gallus gallus domesticus) lung with special reference to Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and mean transmission electron microscope (TEM) features. The lung exhibited variable-sized atrial openings encircled by exchange tissue zones. The parabronchial atrial chambers appeared as ovoid and polygonal-shaped that separated by the well-developed interatrial septum. The deep atrial lumens had blood vessels pierced by openings that represent the infundibula. The parabronchial blood capillaries meshwork was branched and exhibited ovoid-shaped air capillaries with numerous extravasated blood vessels. By TEM, there were several air capillaries and groups of squamous and endothelial respiratory cells and the squamous cells had oval nucleus with evenly distributed chromatin. The endothelial respiratory cells had few microvilli on their free surfaces. The parabronchial tubes opened into a group of widened atria that had smooth muscle bundles at the interatrial septa. The atrial chambers led to narrow infundibula. Moreover, the lining epithelium of parabronchi, atria, infundibula, and air capillaries was formed by simple squamous epithelium. Air capillary walls were lined by two types of respiratory cells (Types-I and II). Collagen fibers were concentrated within the tunica externa layers of the parabronchial blood vessels as well as, they were observed in CT interparabronchial septa. Immunohistochemically, the elastin immunoreactivity was detected around the parabronchial blood vessels, at the base of each parabronchial atria, and in the area encircling the alveolar-capillary walls. Our work concluded that there are a relation between the fowl's lifestyle and the surrounding environmental conditions.

Effect of preoxygenation before isoflurane induction and rocuronium-induced apnea on time until hemoglobin desaturation in domestic chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus)

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the time to hemoglobin oxygen desaturation in chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) with and without preoxygenation before isoflurane induction of anesthesia and rocuronium-induced apnea.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective, randomized crossover study.

ANIMALS

A total of 10 healthy adult Lohmann Brown-Lite hens.

METHODS

Hens were anesthetized with isoflurane for intravenous (IV) and intraarterial catheter placement and allowed to fully recover from anesthesia. Hens in the preoxygenation treatment were administered oxygen (2 L minute^-1) via a facemask for 3 minutes prior to induction of anesthesia with 3% isoflurane in oxygen. In the alternative treatment, hens were not preoxygenated prior to induction of anesthesia with isoflurane in oxygen. Apnea was then induced with rocuronium bromide (1.0 mg kg^-1) administered IV, and anesthesia was maintained with IV propofol infusion. A cloacal pulse oximeter measured hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SpO₂). Time was recorded from the start of apnea until SpO₂ was 90% (desaturation). The trachea was intubated, and anesthesia was maintained with isoflurane in oxygen with manual ventilation until spontaneous breathing returned and SpO₂ ≥ 99%. PaO₂ was measured before each treatment, after preoxygenation, postinduction and at desaturation. Data were analyzed between treatments using Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed rank tests with Holm-Šidák multiple comparison test, and within treatments using Friedman test with Dunn's multiple comparison test (p < 0.05). Data are reported as median (range).

RESULTS

Time from start of apnea until hemoglobin desaturation was not significantly different between preoxygenated and nonpreoxygenated hens [26.5 (16-50) seconds and 24.0 (5-57) seconds, respectively; p = 0.25]. No differences in PaO₂ between treatments were observed at any time point.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Preoxygenation for 3 minutes before isoflurane mask induction of anesthesia and apnea does not significantly increase time until desaturation in hens.

Cervical air sac oxygen profiles in diving emperor penguins: parabronchial ventilation and the respiratory oxygen store

Some marine birds and mammals can perform dives of extraordinary duration and depth. Such dive performance is dependent on many factors, including total body oxygen (O2) stores. For diving penguins, the respiratory system (air sacs and lungs) constitutes 30-50% of the total body O2 store. To better understand the role and mechanism of parabronchial ventilation and O2 utilization in penguins both on the surface and during the dive, we examined air sac partial pressures of O2 (PO2 ) in emperor penguins (Aptenodytes forsteri) equipped with backpack PO2  recorders. Cervical air sac PO2  values at rest were lower than in other birds, while the cervical air sac to posterior thoracic air sac PO2  difference was larger. Pre-dive cervical air sac PO2  values were often greater than those at rest, but had a wide range and were not significantly different from those at rest. The maximum respiratory O2 store and total body O2 stores calculated with representative anterior and posterior air sac PO2  data did not differ from prior estimates. The mean calculated anterior air sac O2 depletion rate for dives up to 11 min was approximately one-tenth that of the posterior air sacs. Low cervical air sac PO2  values at rest may be secondary to a low ratio of parabronchial ventilation to parabronchial blood O2 extraction. During dives, overlap of simultaneously recorded cervical and posterior thoracic air sac PO2  profiles supported the concept of maintenance of parabronchial ventilation during a dive by air movement through the lungs.

Archaeorhynchus preserving significant soft tissue including probable fossilized lungs

We describe a specimen of the basal ornithuromorph Archaeorhynchus spathula from the Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation with extensive soft tissue preservation. Although it is the fifth specimen to be described, unlike the others it preserves significant traces of the plumage, revealing a pintail morphology previously unrecognized among Mesozoic birds, but common in extant neornithines. In addition, this specimen preserves the probable remnants of the paired lungs, an identification supported by topographical and macro- and microscopic anatomical observations. The preserved morphology reveals a lung very similar to that of living birds. It indicates that pulmonary specializations such as exceedingly subdivided parenchyma that allow birds to achieve the oxygen acquisition capacity necessary to support powered flight were present in ornithuromorph birds 120 Mya. Among extant air breathing vertebrates, birds have structurally the most complex and functionally the most efficient respiratory system, which facilitates their highly energetically demanding form of locomotion, even in extremely oxygen-poor environments. Archaeorhynchus is commonly resolved as the most basal known ornithuromorph bird, capturing a stage of avian evolution in which skeletal indicators of respiration remain primitive yet the lung microstructure appears modern. This adds to growing evidence that many physiological modifications of soft tissue systems (e.g., digestive system and respiratory system) that characterize living birds and are key to their current success may have preceded the evolution of obvious skeletal adaptations traditionally tracked through the fossil record.

An examination of the effect of aerosolized Permanone insecticide on zebra finch susceptibility to West Nile virus

West Nile virus (WNV) is maintained cryptically primarily in avian (passerine) populations, where it is transmitted by Culex spp. mosquitoes. Mosquito-control measures currently include physical activities to reduce mosquito-breeding sites and the application of mosquito larvicides or aerosolized insecticides to kill adults (adulticides) when arboviral diseases such as WNV or Zika virus are detected in mosquito populations. Organochlorine, organophosphorus, carbamate, and pyrethroid insecticides are often used. Previous work suggests an effect of pyrethroids on the immune system in a variety of vertebrates. We examined the effects of exposure to aerosolized Permanone® 30:30 insecticide (permethrin and piperonyl butoxide in soy oil vehicle) at approximately 10³ to 10⁶ times potential environmental concentrations on the response of captive zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata) to experimental challenge with WNV. Compared to vehicle control birds, WNV outcome was unchanged (65% of birds produced a viremia) in the "low" exposure (9.52 ± 3.13 mg/m³ standard deviation [SD] permethrin) group but reduced in the "high" exposure (mean 376.5 ± 27.9 mg/m³ SD permethrin) group (30% were viremic; p < 0.05). After clearing WNV infection, birds treated with Permanone regained less body mass than vehicle-treated birds (p < 0.001). The present study suggests that exposure to aerosolized Permanone insecticide at levels exceeding typical application rates has the potential to not change or to mildly enhance a bird's resistance to WNV. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:3376-3386. Published 2017 Wiley Periodicals Inc. on behalf of SETAC. This article is a US government work and, as such, is in the public domain in the United States of America.

Morphological and morphometric specializations of the lung of the Andean goose, Chloephaga melanoptera: A lifelong high-altitude resident

High altitude flight in rarefied, extremely cold and hypoxic air is a very challenging activity. Only a few species of birds can achieve it. Hitherto, the structure of the lungs of such birds has not been studied. This is because of the rarity of such species and the challenges of preparing well-fixed lung tissue. Here, it was posited that in addition to the now proven physiological adaptations, high altitude flying birds will also have acquired pulmonary structural adaptations that enable them to obtain the large amounts of oxygen (O₂) needed for flight at high elevation, an environment where O₂ levels are very low. The Andean goose (Chloephaga melanoptera) normally resides at altitudes above 3000 meters and flies to elevations as high as 6000 meters where O₂ becomes limiting. In this study, its lung was morphologically- and morphometrically investigated. It was found that structurally the lungs are exceptionally specialized for gas exchange. Atypically, the infundibulae are well-vascularized. The mass-specific volume of the lung (42.8 cm³.kg^-1), the mass-specific respiratory surface area of the blood-gas (tissue) barrier (96.5 cm².g^-1) and the mass-specific volume of the pulmonary capillary blood (7.44 cm³.kg^-1) were some of the highest values so far reported in birds. The pulmonary structural specializations have generated a mass-specific total (overall) pulmonary morphometric diffusing capacity of the lung for oxygen (DLo₂) of 0.119 mlO₂.sec^-1.mbar^-1.kg^-1, a value that is among some of the highest ones in birds that have been studied. The adaptations of the lung of the Andean goose possibly produce the high O₂ conductance needed to live and fly at high altitude.

Developmental regulation of chicken surfactant protein A and its localization in lung

Surfactant Protein A (SP-A) is a collagenous C-type lectin (collectin) that plays an important role in the early stage of the host immune response. In chicken, SP-A (cSP-A) is expressed as a 26 kDa glycosylated protein in the lung. Using immunohistochemistry, cSP-A protein was detected mainly in the lung lining fluid covering the parabronchial epithelia. Specific cSP-A producing epithelial cells, resembling mammalian type II cells, were identified in the parabronchi. Gene expression of cSP-A markedly increased from embryonic day 14 onwards until the time of hatch, comparable to the SP-A homologue chicken lung lectin, while mannan binding lectin and collectins CL-L1 and CL-K1 only showed slightly changed expression during development. cSP-A protein could be detected as early as ED 18 in lung tissue using Western blotting, and expression increased steadily until day 28 post-hatch. Our observations are a first step towards understanding the role of this protein in vivo.

Evolution of Newcastle Disease Virus Quasispecies Diversity and Enhanced Virulence after Passage through Chicken Air Sacs

It has been reported that lentogenic Newcastle disease virus (NDV) isolates have the potential to become velogenic after their transmission and circulation in chickens, but the underlying mechanism is unclear. In this study, a highly velogenic NDV variant, JS10-A10, was generated from the duck-origin lentogenic isolate JS10 through 10 consecutive passages in chicken air sacs. The velogenic properties of this selected variant were determined using mean death time (MDT) assays, intracerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI), the intravenous pathogenicity index (IVPI), histopathology, and the analysis of host tissue tropism. In contrast, JS10 remained lentogenic after 20 serial passages in chicken eggs (JS10-E20). The JS10, JS10-A10, and JS10-E20 genomes were sequenced and found to be nearly identical, suggesting that both JS10-A10 and JS10-E20 were directly generated from JS10. To investigate the mechanism for virulence enhancement, the partial genome covering the F0 cleavage site of JS10 and its variants were analyzed using ultradeep pyrosequencing (UDPS) and the proportions of virulence-related genomes in the quasispecies were calculated. Velogenic NDV genomes accumulated as a function of JS10 passaging through chicken air sacs. Our data suggest that lentogenic NDV strains circulating among poultry might be a risk factor to future potential velogenic NDV outbreaks in chickens.

IMPORTANCE

An avirulent isolate, JS10, was passaged through chicken air sacs and embryos, and the pathogenicity of the variants was assessed. A virulent variant, JS10-A10, was generated from consecutive passage in air sacs. We developed a deep-sequencing approach to detect low-frequency viral variants across the NDV genome. We observed that virulence enhancement of JS10 was due to the selective accumulation of velogenic quasispecies and the concomitant disappearance of lentogenic quasispecies. Our results suggest that because it is difficult to avoid contact between natural waterfowl reservoirs and sensitive poultry operations, circulating lentogenic NDV strains may represent a potential reservoir for emergent velogenic NDV strains that could cause outbreaks in chickens.

Studying respiratory rhythm generation in a developing bird: Hatching a new experimental model using the classic in vitro brainstem-spinal cord preparation

It has been more than thirty years since the in vitro brainstem-spinal cord preparation was first presented as a method to study automatic breathing behaviors in the neonatal rat. This straightforward preparation has led to an incredible burst of information about the location and coordination of several spontaneously active microcircuits that form the ventrolateral respiratory network of the brainstem. Despite these advances, our knowledge of the mechanisms that regulate central breathing behaviors is still incomplete. Investigations into the nature of spontaneous breathing rhythmicity have almost exclusively focused on mammals, and there is a need for comparative experimental models to evaluate several unresolved issues from a different perspective. With this in mind, we sought to develop a new avian in vitro model with the long term goal to better understand questions associated with the ontogeny of respiratory rhythm generation, neuroplasticity, and whether multiple, independent oscillators drive the major phases of breathing. The fact that birds develop in ovo provides unparalleled access to central neuronal networks throughout the prenatal period - from embryo to hatchling - that are free from confounding interactions with mother. Previous studies using in vitro avian models have been strictly limited to the early embryonic period. Consequently, the details and even the presence of brainstem derived breathing-related rhythmogenesis in birds have never been described. In the present study, we used the altricial zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata) and show robust spontaneous motor outflow through cranial motor nerve IX, which is first detectable on embryonic day four and continues through prenatal and early postnatal development without interruption. We also show that brainstem oscillations change dramatically over the course of prenatal development, sometimes within hours, which suggests rapid maturational modifications in growth and connectivity. We propose that this experimental preparation will be useful for a variety of studies aimed at testing the biophysical and synaptic properties of neurons that participate in the unique spatiotemporal patterns of avian breathing behaviors, especially in the context of early development.

Penguin lungs and air sacs: implications for baroprotection, oxygen stores and buoyancy

The anatomy and volume of the penguin respiratory system contribute significantly to pulmonary baroprotection, the body O2 store, buoyancy and hence the overall diving physiology of penguins. Therefore, three-dimensional reconstructions from computerized tomographic (CT) scans of live penguins were utilized to measure lung volumes, air sac volumes, tracheobronchial volumes and total body volumes at different inflation pressures in three species with different dive capacities [Adélie (Pygoscelis adeliae), king (Aptenodytes patagonicus) and emperor (A. forsteri) penguins]. Lung volumes scaled to body mass according to published avian allometrics. Air sac volumes at 30 cm H2O (2.94 kPa) inflation pressure, the assumed maximum volume possible prior to deep dives, were two to three times allometric air sac predictions and also two to three times previously determined end-of-dive total air volumes. Although it is unknown whether penguins inhale to such high volumes prior to dives, these values were supported by (a) body density/buoyancy calculations, (b) prior air volume measurements in free-diving ducks and (c) previous suggestions that penguins may exhale air prior to the final portions of deep dives. Based upon air capillary volumes, parabronchial volumes and tracheobronchial volumes estimated from the measured lung/airway volumes and the only available morphometry study of a penguin lung, the presumed maximum air sac volumes resulted in air sac volume to air capillary/parabronchial/tracheobronchial volume ratios that were not large enough to prevent barotrauma to the non-collapsing, rigid air capillaries during the deepest dives of all three species, and during many routine dives of king and emperor penguins. We conclude that volume reduction of airways and lung air spaces, via compression, constriction or blood engorgement, must occur to provide pulmonary baroprotection at depth. It is also possible that relative air capillary and parabronchial volumes are smaller in these deeper-diving species than in the spheniscid penguin of the morphometry study. If penguins do inhale to this maximum air sac volume prior to their deepest dives, the magnitude and distribution of the body O2 store would change considerably. In emperor penguins, total body O2 would increase by 75%, and the respiratory fraction would increase from 33% to 61%. We emphasize that the maximum pre-dive respiratory air volume is still unknown in penguins. However, even lesser increases in air sac volume prior to a dive would still significantly increase the O2 store. More refined evaluations of the respiratory O2 store and baroprotective mechanisms in penguins await further investigation of species-specific lung morphometry, start-of-dive air volumes and body buoyancy, and the possibility of air exhalation during dives.

Three-Dimensional Structure and Disposition of the Air Conducting and Gas Exchange Conduits of the Avian Lung: The Domestic Duck (Cairina moschata)

The anatomy of the domestic duck lung was studied macroscopically, by casting and by light, transmission, and scanning electron microscopy. The lung had four categories of secondary bronchi (SB), namely, the medioventral (MV, 4-5), laterodorsal (LD, 6-10), lateroventral (LV, 2-4), and posterior secondary bronchi (PO, 36-44). The neopulmonic parabronchi formed an intricate feltwork on the ventral third of the lung and inosculated those from the other SB. The lung parenchyma was organized into cylindrical parabronchi separated by thin septa containing blood vessels. Atria were shallow and well-fortified by epithelial ridges reinforced by smooth muscle bundles and gave rise to 2-6 elongate infundibulae. Air capillaries arose either directly from the atria or from infundibulae and were tubular or globular in shape with thin interconnecting branches. The newly described spatial disposition of the conducting air conduits closely resembles that of the chicken. This remarkable similarity between the categories, numbers, and 3D arrangement of the SB in the duck and chicken points to a convergence in function-oriented design. To illuminate airflow dynamics in the avian lung, precise directions of airflow in the various categories of SB and parabronchi need to be characterized.

Evolution of air breathing: oxygen homeostasis and the transitions from water to land and sky

Life originated in anoxia, but many organisms came to depend upon oxygen for survival, independently evolving diverse respiratory systems for acquiring oxygen from the environment. Ambient oxygen tension (PO2) fluctuated through the ages in correlation with biodiversity and body size, enabling organisms to migrate from water to land and air and sometimes in the opposite direction. Habitat expansion compels the use of different gas exchangers, for example, skin, gills, tracheae, lungs, and their intermediate stages, that may coexist within the same species; coexistence may be temporally disjunct (e.g., larval gills vs. adult lungs) or simultaneous (e.g., skin, gills, and lungs in some salamanders). Disparate systems exhibit similar directions of adaptation: toward larger diffusion interfaces, thinner barriers, finer dynamic regulation, and reduced cost of breathing. Efficient respiratory gas exchange, coupled to downstream convective and diffusive resistances, comprise the "oxygen cascade"-step-down of PO2 that balances supply against toxicity. Here, we review the origin of oxygen homeostasis, a primal selection factor for all respiratory systems, which in turn function as gatekeepers of the cascade. Within an organism's lifespan, the respiratory apparatus adapts in various ways to upregulate oxygen uptake in hypoxia and restrict uptake in hyperoxia. In an evolutionary context, certain species also become adapted to environmental conditions or habitual organismic demands. We, therefore, survey the comparative anatomy and physiology of respiratory systems from invertebrates to vertebrates, water to air breathers, and terrestrial to aerial inhabitants. Through the evolutionary directions and variety of gas exchangers, their shared features and individual compromises may be appreciated.

Comparative molecular developmental aspects of the mammalian- and the avian lungs, and the insectan tracheal system by branching morphogenesis: recent advances and future directions

Gas exchangers fundamentally form by branching morphogenesis (BM), a mechanistically profoundly complex process which derives from coherent expression and regulation of multiple genes that direct cell-to-cell interactions, differentiation, and movements by signaling of various molecular morphogenetic cues at specific times and particular places in the developing organ. Coordinated expression of growth-instructing factors determines sizes and sites where bifurcation occurs, by how much a part elongates before it divides, and the angle at which branching occurs. BM is essentially induced by dualities of factors where through feedback- or feed forward loops agonists/antagonists are activated or repressed. The intricate transactions between the development orchestrating molecular factors determine the ultimate phenotype. From the primeval time when the transformation of unicellular organisms to multicellular ones occurred by systematic accretion of cells, BM has been perpetually conserved. Canonical signalling, transcriptional pathways, and other instructive molecular factors are commonly employed within and across species, tissues, and stages of development. While much still remain to be elucidated and some of what has been reported corroborated and reconciled with rest of existing data, notable progress has in recent times been made in understanding the mechanism of BM. By identifying and characterizing the morphogenetic drivers, and markers and their regulatory dynamics, the elemental underpinnings of BM have been more precisely explained. Broadening these insights will allow more effective diagnostic and therapeutic interventions of developmental abnormalities and pathologies in pre- and postnatal lungs. Conservation of the molecular factors which are involved in the development of the lung (and other branched organs) is a classic example of nature's astuteness in economically utilizing finite resources. Once purposefully formed, well-tested and tried ways and means are adopted, preserved, and widely used to engineer the most optimal phenotypes. The material and time costs of developing utterly new instruments and routines with every drastic biological change (e.g. adaptation and speciation) are circumvented. This should assure the best possible structures and therefore functions, ensuring survival and evolutionary success.

Multilocus coalescent analysis of haemoglobin differentiation between low- and high-altitude populations of crested ducks (Lophonetta specularioides)

Hypoxia is a key factor determining survival, and haemoglobins are targets of selection in species native to high-altitude regions. We studied population genetic structure and evaluated evidence for local adaptation in the crested duck (Lophonetta specularioides). Differentiation, gene flow and time since divergence between highland and lowland populations were assessed for three haemoglobin genes (α(A) , α(D) , β(A) ) and compared to seven reference loci (six autosomal introns and mtDNA). Four derived amino acid replacements were found in the globin genes that had elevated Φ(ST) values between the Andean highlands and Patagonian lowlands. A single β(A) -globin polymorphism at a site known to influence O(2) affinity was fixed for different alleles in the two populations, whereas three α(A) - and α(D) -globin polymorphisms exhibited high heterozygosity in the highlands but not in the lowlands. Coalescent analyses supported restricted gene flow for haemoglobin alleles and mitochondrial DNA but nonzero gene flow for the introns. Simulating genetic data under a drift-migration model of selective neutrality, the β(A) -globin fell outside the 95% confidence limit of simulated data, suggesting that directional selection is maintaining different variants in the contrasting elevational environments, thereby restricting migration of β(A) -globin alleles. The α(A) - and α(D) -globins, by contrast, did not differ from the simulated values, suggesting that variants in these genes are either selectively neutral, or that the effects of selection could not be differentiated from background levels of population structure and linkage disequilibrium. This study illustrates the combined effects of selection and population history on inferring levels of population divergence for a species distributed across an altitudinal gradient in which selection for hypoxia resistance has likely played an important role.

Implicit mechanistic role of the collagen, smooth muscle, and elastic tissue components in strengthening the air and blood capillaries of the avian lung

To identify the forces that may exist in the parabronchus of the avian lung and that which may explain the reported strengths of the terminal respiratory units, the air capillaries and the blood capillaries, the arrangement of the parabronchial collagen fibers (CF) of the lung of the domestic fowl, Gallus gallus variant domesticus was investigated by discriminatory staining, selective alkali digestion, and vascular casting followed by alkali digestion. On the luminal circumference, the atrial and the infundibular CF are directly connected to the smooth muscle fibers and the elastic tissue fibers. The CF in this part of the parabronchus form the internal column (the axial scaffold), whereas the CF in the interparabronchial septa and those associated with the walls of the interparabronchial blood vessels form the external, i.e. the peripheral, parabronchial CF scaffold. Thin CF penetrate the exchange tissue directly from the interparabronchial septa and indirectly by accompanying the intraparabronchial blood vessels. Forming a dense network that supports the air and blood capillaries, the CF weave through the exchange tissue. The exchange tissue, specifically the air and blood capillaries, is effectively suspended between CF pillars by an intricate system of thin CF, elastic and smooth muscle fibers. The CF course through the basement membranes of the walls of the blood and air capillaries. Based on the architecture of the smooth muscle fibers, the CF, the elastic muscle fibers, and structures like the interparabronchial septa and their associated blood vessels, it is envisaged that dynamic tensional, resistive, and compressive forces exist in the parabronchus, forming a tensegrity (tension integrity) system that gives the lung rigidity while strengthening the air and blood capillaries.

Comparative in vitro study of interactions between particles and respiratory surface macrophages, erythrocytes, and epithelial cells of the chicken and the rat

In mammals, surface macrophages (SMs) play a foremost role in protecting the respiratory system by engulfing and destroying inhaled pathogens and harmful particulates. However, in birds, the direct defense role(s) that SMs perform remains ambiguous. Paucity and even lack of SMs have been reported in the avian respiratory system. It has been speculated that the pulmonary defenses in birds are inadequate and that birds are exceptionally susceptible to pulmonary diseases. In an endeavour to resolve the existing controversy, the phagocytic capacities of the respiratory SMs of the domestic fowl and the rat were compared under similar experimental conditions by exposure to polystyrene particles. In cells of equivalent diameters (8.5 microm in the chicken and 9.0 microm in the rat) and hence volumes, with the volume density of the engulfed polystyrene particles, i.e. the volume of the particles per unit volume of the cell (SM) of 23% in the chicken and 5% in the rat cells, the avian cells engulfed substantially more particles. Furthermore, the avian SMs phagocytized the particles more efficiently, i.e. at a faster rate. The chicken erythrocytes and the epithelial cells of the airways showed noteworthy phagocytic activity. In contrast to the rat cells that did not, 22% of the chicken erythrocytes phagocytized one to six particles. In birds, the phagocytic efficiencies of the SMs, erythrocytes, and epithelial cells may consolidate pulmonary defense. The assorted cellular defenses may explain how and why scarcity of SMs may not directly lead to a weak pulmonary defense. The perceived susceptibility of birds to respiratory diseases may stem from the human interventions that have included extreme genetic manipulation and intensive management for maximum productivity. The stress involved and the structural-functional disequilibria that have occurred from a 'directed evolutionary process', rather than weak immunological and cellular immunity, may explain the alleged vulnerability of the avian gas exchanger to diseases.

High-altitude adaptations in vertebrate hemoglobins

Vertebrates at high altitude are subjected to hypoxic conditions that challenge aerobic metabolism. O(2) transport from the respiratory surfaces to tissues requires matching between the O(2) loading and unloading tensions and the O(2)-affinity of blood, which is an integrated function of hemoglobin's intrinsic O(2)-affinity and its allosteric interaction with cellular effectors (organic phosphates, protons and chloride). Whereas short-term altitudinal adaptations predominantly involve adjustments in allosteric interactions, long-term, genetically-coded adaptations typically involve changes in the structure of the haemoglobin molecules. The latter commonly comprise substitutions of amino acid residues at the effector binding sites, the heme-protein contacts, or at intersubunit contacts that stabilize either the low-affinity ('Tense') or the high-affinity ('Relaxed') structures of the molecules. Molecular heterogeneity (multiple isoHbs with differentiated oxygenation properties) can further broaden the range of physico-chemical conditions where Hb functions under altitudinal hypoxia. This treatise reviews the molecular and cellular mechanisms that adapt haemoglobin-oxygen affinities in mammals, birds and ectothermic vertebrates at high altitude.

Quantification by Image Analysis of the Gallus gallus Lung Elastic Fibres from Embryonic to Adult Birds

The organization of the lung's elastic fibres is amazingly uniform in all vertebrates, with the possible exception of birds, whose pulmonary architecture and air movement are unique. The overall goal of this work was to study and quantify elastic fibre distribution patterns and relative amounts in the parabronchi, during the incubation period until the 42nd day after hatching. Chick embryo lungs were examined on the 14th, 16th, 18th and 20th days of incubation and chick lungs on the 1st, 2nd, 7th, 14th, 35th and 42nd days after hatching. Four animals were used daily, and the observations were randomly performed on both lungs. A morphometric study was carried out focusing on the computerized image analysis of histological sections stained according to a modified Gomori technique. The values obtained for each day result from the observation and processing of 20 images. Complementary studies were performed using transmission electron microscopy, as on the 14th embryonic day the fibres were not visible on light microscopy. The results show that the area occupied by the elastic fibres increases gradually from the 16th day of incubation up till the 7th day after hatching and decreases slowly in the following days of the study. A prominent increase takes place before hatching, which points out to the adequate and essential structural roles played by the elastic fibres in the pulmonary maturation process.

The avian lung-associated immune system: a review

The lung is a major target organ for numerous viral and bacterial diseases of poultry. To control this constant threat birds have developed a highly organized lung-associated immune system. In this review the basic features of this system are described and their functional properties discussed. Most prominent in the avian lung is the bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT) which is located at the junctions between the primary bronchus and the caudal secondary bronchi. BALT nodules are absent in newly hatched birds, but gradually developed into the mature structures found from 6-8 weeks onwards. They are organized into distinct B and T cell areas, frequently comprise germinal centres and are covered by a characteristic follicle-associated epithelium. The interstitial tissue of the parabronchial walls harbours large numbers of tissue macrophages and lymphocytes which are scattered throughout tissue. A striking feature of the avian lung is the low number of macrophages on the respiratory surface under non-inflammatory conditions. Stimulation of the lung by live bacteria but not by a variety of bacterial products elicits a significant efflux of activated macrophages and, depending on the pathogen, of heterophils. In addition to the cellular components humoral defence mechanisms are found on the lung surface including secretory IgA. The compartmentalisation of the immune system in the avian lung into BALT and non BALT-regions should be taken into account in studies on the host-pathogen interaction since these structures may have distinct functional properties during an immune response.

Air sac PO2 and oxygen depletion during dives of emperor penguins

In order to determine the rate and magnitude of respiratory O2 depletion during dives of emperor penguins (Aptenodytes forsteri), air sac O2 partial pressure (PO2) was recorded in 73 dives of four birds at an isolated dive hole. These results were evaluated with respect to hypoxic tolerance, the aerobic dive limit (ADL; dive duration beyond which there is post-dive lactate accumulation) and previously measured field metabolic rates (FMRs). 55% of dives were greater in duration than the previously measured 5.6-min ADL. PO2 and depth profiles revealed compression hyperoxia and gradual O2 depletion during dives. 42% of final PO2s during the dives (recorded during the last 15 s of ascent) were <20 mmHg (<2.7 kPa). Assuming that the measured air sac PO2 is representative of the entire respiratory system, this implies remarkable hypoxic tolerance in emperors. In dives of durations greater than the ADL, the calculated end-of-dive air sac O2 fraction was <4%. The respiratory O2 store depletion rate of an entire dive, based on the change in O2 fraction during a dive and previously measured diving respiratory volume, ranged from 1 to 5 ml O2 kg(-1) min(-1) and decreased exponentially with diving duration. The mean value, 2.1+/-0.8 ml O2 kg(-1) min(-1), was (1) 19-42% of previously measured respiratory O(2) depletion rates during forced submersions and simulated dives, (2) approximately one-third of the predicted total body resting metabolic rate and (3) approximately 10% of the measured FMR. These findings are consistent with a low total body metabolic rate during the dive.

Systematic analysis of hematopoietic, vasculogenetic, and angiogenetic phases in the developing embryonic avian lung, Gallus gallus variant domesticus

In the embryonic lung of the domestic fowl, Gallus gallus variant domesticus, hematogenetic and vasculogenetic cells become ultrastructurally clear from day 4 of development. In the former group of cells, filopodial extensions coalesce, cytoplasm thickens, and accumulating hemoglobin displaces the nucleus peripherally while in the latter, conspicuous filopodial extensions and large nuclei develop as the cells assume a rather stellate appearance. From day 5, erythrocytes and granular leukocytes begin forming from cytoarchitecturally cognate hematogenetic cells. The cells become distinguishable when hemoglobin starts to accumulate in the erythroblasts and electron dense bodies form in the leukoblasts. Vasculogenesis begins from day 7 in different areas of the developing lung: erthrocytes (but not granular leukocytes) appear to attract committed vasculogenetic cells (angioblasts) that form an endothelial lining and vessel wall. Arrangement of angioblasts around forming blood vessels sets the direction along which the vessels sprout (angiogenesis). In some areas of the developing lung, through what seems like an inductive erythropoietic process, arcades of erythrocytes organize. Once endothelial cells surround such continuities, discrete vascular units organize. By day 10, the major parts of the in-built (intrinsic) pulmonary vasculature are assembled. Complete pulmonary circulation (i.e., through the exchange tissue) is not established until after day 18 when the blood capillaries start to develop. Since the precursory erythrocytes do not have a respiratory role, it is imperative that de novo erythropoiesis is essential for vasculogenesis. Diffuse (fragmentary) development and subsequent piecemeal assembly of the pulmonary vascular system may explicate the fabrication of a complex circulatory architecture that grants cross-current, counter-current, and multicapillary serial arterialization designs in the exchange tissue of the avian lung. The exceptional respiratory efficiency of the avian lung is largely attributable to the geometries (physical interfacing) between the bronchial and vascular elements at different levels of morphological organization.

Morphogenesis of the laminated, tripartite cytoarchitectural design of the blood–gas barrier of the avian lung: a systematic electron microscopic study on the domestic fowl, Gallus gallus variant domesticus

Formation of a thin blood-gas barrier in the respiratory (gas exchange) tissue of the lung of the domestic fowl, Gallus gallus variant domesticus commences on day 18 of embryogenesis. Developing from infundibulae, air capillaries radiate outwards into the surrounding mesenchymal (periparabronchial) tissue, progressively separating and interdigitating with the blood capillaries. Thinning of the blood-gas barrier occurs by growth and extension of the air capillaries and by extensive disintegration of mesenchymal cells that constitute transient septa that divide the lengthening and anastomosing air capillaries. After they contact, the epithelial and endothelial cells deposit intercellular matrix that cements them back-to-back. At hatching (day 21), with a thin blood-gas barrier and a large respiratory surface area, the lung is well prepared for gas exchange. In sites where air capillaries lie adjacent to each other, epithelial cells contact directly: intercellular matrix is lacking.

A systematic study of the development of the airway (bronchial) system of the avian lung from days 3 to 26 of embryogenesis: a transmission electron microscopic study on the domestic fowl, Gallus gallus variant domesticus

In the embryo of the domestic fowl, Gallus gallus variant domesticus, the lung buds become evident on day 3 of development. After fusing on the ventral midline, the single entity divides into left and right primordial lungs that elongate caudally while diverging and shifting towards the dorsolateral aspects of the coelomic cavity. On reaching their definitive topographical locations, the lungs rotate along a longitudinal axis, attach, and begin to slide into the ribs. First appearing as a solid cord of epithelial cells that runs in the proximal-distal axis of the developing lung, progressively, the intrapulmonary primary bronchus begins to canalize. In quick succession, secondary bronchi sprout from it in a craniocaudal sequence and radiate outwards. On reaching the periphery of the lung, parabronchi (tertiary bronchi) bud from the secondary bronchi and project into the surrounding mesenchymal cell mass. The parabronchi canalize, lengthen, increase in diameter, anastomose, and ultimately connect the secondary bronchi. The luminal aspect of the formative parabronchi is initially lined by a composite epithelium of which the peripheral cells attach onto the basement membrane while the apical ones project prominently into the lumen. The epithelium transforms to a simple columnar type in which the cells connect through arm-like extensions and prominently large intercellular spaces form. The atria are conspicuous on day 15, the infundibulae on day 16, and air capillaries on day 18. At hatching (day 21), the air and blood capillaries have anastomosed profusely and the blood-gas barrier become remarkably thin. The lung is well developed and potentially functionally competent at the end of the embryonic life. Thereafter, at least upto day 26, no further consequential structures form. The mechanisms by which the airways in the avian lung develop fundamentally differ from those that occur in the mammalian one. Compared with the blind-ended bronchial system that inaugurates in the mammalian lung, an elaborate, continuous system of air conduits develops in the avian one. Further studies are necessary to underpin the specific molecular factors and genetic processes that direct the morphogenesis of an exceptionally complex and efficient respiratory organ.

The detailed anatomy of Rhamphorhynchus: axial pneumaticity and its implications

An acid- and transfer-prepared, juvenile Rhamphorhynchus muensteri, despite some fragmentation, is in an excellent state of three-dimensional preservation, exposing exquisite anatomical details hitherto unknown in other pterosaurs. Here we describe the axial pneumatizations of the cervical and anterior dorsal vertebrae and the sternum. The interior of the cervical centra is subdivided into a pair of large camerae, presumably by air sacs entering by large pleurocoels in the sides of the centra. This so-called ‘camerate’ type of pneumatization is hitherto unknown in pterosaurs. Another excavation enters from the ventral side into the base of the neural arch and stretches between the pre- and postzygapophyses. This type of cavity also penetrates from the ventral side into the base of the first few transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae, although these lack central pleurocoels. The cristospine also has a complex pneumatic foramen.

Skeletal pneumaticity is most probably a result of a highly derived pulmonary system, as in extant birds. Morphologically similar pneumatic features are present in most saurischian dinosaurs and it is possible that they are the result of convergence. Because basal members of the various groups, including Triassic pterosaurs, appear to lack skeletal pneumaticity, convergence seems likely, although the stem-ornithodiran parsimoniously possessed a more bird-like than ‘reptile’-like pulmonary system, albeit non-invasive. This points to possible tachymetabolism in these forms, which is in accord with the distribution of other factors such as integumentary structures and bone histology. It is concluded that evolution of this suite of advanced features, surprisingly, was among the earliest events in the ornithodiran lineage soon after it split off from its crocodilian sister-group.

Oxygen uptake during post dive recovery in a diving birdAythya fuligula: implications for optimal foraging models

The rate of oxygen uptake at the surface between dives was measured for four tufted ducks, Aythya fuligula, during bouts of foraging dives to a depth of 1.8 m. The ducks surfaced into a respirometer box after each dive so that the rate of oxygen uptake(V̇O2) could be measured. V̇O2decreased over time at the surface and there was a particularly rapid phase of oxygen uptake for approximately the first 3s. The specific shape of the oxygen uptake curve is dependent upon the duration of the preceding dive. The uptake curve after longer dives was significantly steeper during the first 3s at the surface than after shorter dives, although V̇O2 after the first 3s was not significantly different between these two dive duration bins. Thus, the mean total oxygen uptake (VO2) was higher after surface periods following longer dives. Due to the high V̇O2 during the initial part of the surface period, the curve associated with longer dives was statistically biphasic, with the point of inflection at 3.3s. The curve for shorter dives was not statistically biphasic. The birds may increase their respiratory frequency during the first 3s after longer dives, producing the increased V̇O2,which would enable the birds to resaturate their oxygen stores more rapidly in response to the increased oxygen depletion of the longer submergence time.

Structure, function and evolution of the gas exchangers: comparative perspectives

Over the evolutionary continuum, animals have faced similar fundamental challenges of acquiring molecular oxygen for aerobic metabolism. Under limitations and constraints imposed by factors such as phylogeny, behaviour, body size and environment, they have responded differently in founding optimal respiratory structures. A quintessence of the aphorism that 'necessity is the mother of invention', gas exchangers have been inaugurated through stiff cost-benefit analyses that have evoked transaction of trade-offs and compromises. Cogent structural-functional correlations occur in constructions of gas exchangers: within and between taxa, morphological complexity and respiratory efficiency increase with metabolic capacities and oxygen needs. Highly active, small endotherms have relatively better-refined gas exchangers compared with large, inactive ectotherms. Respiratory structures have developed from the plain cell membrane of the primeval prokaryotic unicells to complex multifunctional ones of the modern Metazoa. Regarding the respiratory medium used to extract oxygen from, animal life has had only two choices--water or air--within the biological range of temperature and pressure the only naturally occurring respirable fluids. In rarer cases, certain animals have adapted to using both media. Gills (evaginated gas exchangers) are the primordial respiratory organs: they are the archetypal water breathing organs. Lungs (invaginated gas exchangers) are the model air breathing organs. Bimodal (transitional) breathers occupy the water-air interface. Presentation and exposure of external (water/air) and internal (haemolymph/blood) respiratory media, features determined by geometric arrangement of the conduits, are important features for gas exchange efficiency: counter-current, cross-current, uniform pool and infinite pool designs have variably developed.

Inspiratory aerodynamic valving in the avian lung: functional morphology of the extrapulmonary primary bronchus

The form, geometry and epithelial morphology of the extrapulmonary primary bronchi (EPPB) of the domestic fowl (Gallus gallus var. domesticus) and the rock dove (Columba livia) were studied microscopically and by three-dimensional computer reconstruction to determine the structural features that may be involved in the rectification of the inspired air past the openings of the medioventral secondary bronchi (MVSB), i.e. the inspiratory aerodynamic valving (IAV). In both species, the EPPB were intercalated between the clavicular and the cranial thoracic air-sacs. A notable difference between the morphology of the EPPB in G. g. domesticus and C. livia was that, in the former, the EPPB were constricted at the origin of the MVSB, while a dilatation occurred at the same site in the latter. In both species, a highly vascularized, dorsally located hemispherical epithelial swelling was observed cranial to the origin of the MVSB. The MVSB were narrow at their origin and variably angled relative to the longitudinal axis of the EPPB. Conspicuous epithelial tracts and folds were observed on the luminal aspect of the EPPB in both C. livia and G. g. domesticus. From their marked development and their orientation relative to the angled MVSB, these properties may influence the flow of the air in the EPPB. It was concluded that features such as syringeal constriction, an intimate topographic relationship between the EPPB and the cranial air-sacs, prominent epithelial tracts and folds, an epithelial swelling ahead of the origin of the first MVSB (corresponding to the ‘segmentun accelerans’), and narrowing and angulation of the MVSB at their origin, may together contribute to IAV to a variable extent. In as much as the mechanism of pulmonary ventilation and mode of airflow in the parabronchial lung are basically similar in all birds, the morphological differences observed between G. g. domesticus and C. livia suggest that either the mechanism of production of IAV or its functional efficiency may be different, at least in these two species of birds.

Comparative respiratory morphology: themes and principles in the design and construction of the gas exchangers

Along the evolutionary continuum, a kaleidoscope of gas exchangers has evolved from the simple cell membrane of the primeval unicells. The most momentous events in this process were: the intensification of molecular oxygen in the biosphere and its appropriation into aerobic metabolism, the rise of multicellular organisms, the development of a circulatory system and carrier pigments in blood, the advocacy of air breathing, adoption of suctional breathing, and the shift to endothermy. To satisfy species-specific needs for oxygen, some constraints were overcome through transactions that obliged certain compromises and trade-offs. Optimal designs of the gas exchangers for particular phylogenetic levels of development, habitat, and lifestyle have developed only so far as to satisfy prescribed needs. The efficiency of the human lung, for example, falls well below those of certain taxa that are considered to be relatively "less advanced." Utilizing different resources and strategies, in fascinating processes of conformity, different groups of animals have developed similar respiratory structures. In most cases, the analogy reflects evolutionary convergence in response to corresponding selective pressures rather than common ancestry. Anat Rec (New Anat) 261:25-44, 2000.

Avian diving, respiratory physiology and the marginal value theorem

Behavioural studies of diving birds have reported that the ratio of dive duration to the duration of the subsequent period on the surface displays a characteristic relation to dive duration. For short dives, the dive to surface ratio increases with dive duration, whereafter the relation peaks, and for longer dives decreases with increasing dive duration. Such a relationship is not a general prediction of existing marginal value models which have been used to predict optimal diving behaviour. This may be because the smooth curve used to describe the oxygen gain rate of individuals after surfacing is not a good reflection of the respiratory physiology of birds. Here we argue that on physiological grounds, the oxygen gain curve for avian divers will not be smooth, but will have two distinct regions (representing oxygen recovery in the respiratory tract, and in haemoglobin and myoglobin, respectively). Modifying two of the classical diving models by incorporating such a kinked curve causes them to predict the humped relationship between dive to surface ratio and dive duration under many circumstances. We also present data on the duration of dives and surface periods from three species of diving seabirds: the shag, Phalacrocorax aristotelis, the black guillemot, Cepphus grylle and the common guillemot, Uria aalge. All three species showed a humped relationship for dive to surface ratio as a function of dive duration. In line with the predictions of our model, when oxygen stores on surfacing were greatly depleted, the dive to surface ratio peaked at short dive durations. Copyright 1998 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.

Adaptation of bird hemoglobins to high altitudes: demonstration of molecular mechanism by protein engineering

Of two closely related species of geese, one, the greylag goose, lives in the Indian plains all year round, while the other, the bar-headed goose, lives at the Tibetan lakes and migrates across the Himalayas to winter in India. Another species, the Andean goose, lives in the High Andes all year round. Possession of a Hb with high oxygen affinity helps to adapt bar-headed and Andean geese to high altitudes. The Hb amino acid sequences of the bar-headed and the greylag geese differ by four substitutions, of which only one is unique among bird sequences: Pro-119 alpha (H2)----Ala. Perutz proposed that the two-carbon gap left by this substitution at the alpha 1 beta 1 contact raises the oxygen affinity, because it relaxes the tension in the deoxy or T structure [Perutz, M. F. (1983) Mol. Biol. Evol. 1, 1-28]. It was later found that the Hb of the Andean goose has a gap in the same position, due to the complementary substitution Leu-55 beta (D6)----Ser. We have tested Perutz's hypothesis by introducing each of these substitutions into human globin synthesized in Escherichia coli. The reconstituted Hbs combine cooperatively with oxygen. Their oxygen affinities exceed that of normal human Hb by an even larger factor than that found between the high-flying geese and the greylag goose. The mutant Hb Met-55 beta (D6)----Ser was crystallized. Its structure is the same as that of HbA, except in the immediate environment of the gap left by the substitution of the serine for the methionine side chain, which evidently causes the increased oxygen affinity of this Hb.