Six months vitamin K treatment does not affect systemic arterial calcification or bone mineral density in diabetes mellitus 2

Dietary vitamin K intake in relation to skeletal muscle mass and strength among adults: a cross-sectional study based on NHANES

Background

Previous studies revealed that vitamin K might help maintain muscle homeostasis, but this association has received little attention. We aimed to explore the associations of vitamin K intake with skeletal muscle mass and strength.

Methods

We included cross-sectional data from the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES, 2011-2018). Vitamin K intake was assessed via 24-h recall. Covariate-adjusted multiple linear regression and restricted cubic splines were used to evaluate the associations of dietary vitamin K intake with skeletal muscle mass and strength, measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and handgrip dynamometer, respectively.

Results

Dietary vitamin K intake was positively associated with skeletal muscle mass in males (β = 0.05747, p = 0.0204) but not in females. We also revealed a positive association between dietary vitamin K intake and handgrip strength within the range of 0-59.871 μg/d (P nonlinear = 0.049). However, beyond this threshold, increasing vitamin K intake did not cause additional handgrip strength improvements.

Conclusion

We provided evidence for a positive relationship between dietary vitamin K intake and skeletal muscle mass in males. Moreover, our study revealed a nonlinear relationship between dietary vitamin K intake and handgrip strength, highlighting an optimal intake range.

The effect of six-month oral vitamin K supplementation on calcification propensity time in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A post hoc analysis of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Experimental studies suggested that vitamin K supplementation may retard arterial calcification. Recently, serum calcification propensity time (T50) has been suggested as a functional biomarker for arterial wall calcification propensity. In this post-hoc analysis of a clinical trial, we evaluated the effect of six-month oral vitamin K supplementation on T50 and assessed the correlation between T50 and imaging arterial calcification parameters in people with type 2 diabetes (T2DM).

METHODS

This double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial included 68 participants (age = 69 ± 8 years, 76% male) with T2DM. Participants were assigned to menaquinone-7 (360 μg/day; n = 35) or placebo (n = 33). T50 was measured via nephelometry in serum collected at baseline, three and six months. Arterial calcification was measured at baseline and six months via 18F-Na PET-CT and conventional CT using Target-to-Background ratio (TBR) and Agatston score. Longitudinal analysis of covariance adjusted for baseline T50 was used to study the treatment effect. Spearman's correlation was used to assess the correlation between T50 and imaging calcification parameters.

RESULTS

Median baseline T50 was similar in the vitamin K (350 [321-394] minutes) and placebo groups (363 [320-398]). There was no significant difference in T50 between treatment arms over time (ẞ = 1.00, 95%C.I. = 0.94-1.07, p = 0.982). The correlation coefficient of T50 with TBR and Agatston score at baseline were -0.185 (p = 0.156) and -0.121 (p = 0.358), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

No effect of vitamin K supplementation on T50 was observed in T2DM. Moreover, T50 did not correlate with TBR and Agatston score. Further research on vitamin K in arterial calcification and on the validity of T50 as arterial calcification marker is warranted.

Association between lower extremity arterial calcification and coronary arterial calcification in a population at increased risk of cardiovascular disease

INTRODUCTION

There is conflicting evidence whether lower extremity arterial calcification coincides with coronary arterial calcification (CAC). The aims of this study were to investigate the associations between (1) femoral and crural calcification with CAC, and (2) femoral and crural calcification pattern with CAC.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 405 individuals (74% men, 62.6±10.9 years) from the ARTEMIS cohort study at high risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) who underwent a CT scan of the femoral, crural and coronary arteries. High CVD risk was defined as history/presence of cerebrovascular disease, coronary artery disease, abdominal aortic aneurysm, renal artery stenosis, peripheral artery disease or CVD risk factors: diabetes mellitus type 2, hypertension, hyperlipidemia. Calcification score within each arterial bed was expressed in Agatston units. Dominant calcification patterns (intimal, medial, absent/indistinguishable) were determined via a CT-guided histologically validated scoring algorithm. Multivariable-adjusted multinomial logistic regression analyses were used. Replication was performed in an independent population of individuals with diabetes mellitus type 2 (Early-HFpEF cohort study).

RESULTS

Every 100-point increase in femoral and crural calcification score was associated with 1.23 (95% CI=1.09 to 1.37, p<0.001) and 1.28 (95% CI=1.11 to 1.47, p=0.001) times higher odds of having CAC within tertile 3 (high) versus tertile 1 (low), respectively. The association appeared stronger for crural versus femoral arteries. Moreover, the presence of femoral intimal (OR=10.81, 95% CI=4.23 to 27.62, p<0.001), femoral medial (OR=10.37, 95% CI=3.92 to 27.38, p<0.001) and crural intimal (OR=6.70, 95% CI=2.73 to 16.43, p<0.001) calcification patterns were associated with higher odds of having CAC within tertile 3 versus tertile 1, independently from concomitant calcification score. This association appeared stronger for intimal versus medial calcification patterns. The replication analysis yielded similar results.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher femoral and crural calcification scores were associated with higher CAC. Moreover, the presence of femoral intimal, femoral medial and crural intimal calcification patterns was associated with increased CAC. It appears that arterial calcification is a systemic process which occurs simultaneously in various arterial beds.

The Potential of Vitamin K as a Regulatory Factor of Bone Metabolism-A Review

Vitamin K (VK), a fat-soluble vitamin, is essential for the clotting of blood because of its role in the production of clotting factors in the liver. Moreover, researchers continue to explore the role of VK as an emerging novel bioactive molecule with the potential function of improving bone health. This review focuses on the effects of VK on bone health and related mechanisms, covering VK research history, homologous analogs, dietary sources, bioavailability, recommended intake, and deficiency. The information summarized here could contribute to the basic and clinical research on VK as a natural dietary additive and drug candidate for bone health. Future research is needed to extend the dietary VK database and explore the pharmacological safety of VK and factors affecting VK bioavailability to provide more support for the bone health benefits of VK through more clinical trials.

Vitamin K supplementation and vascular calcification: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Background

Vascular calcification (VC) is a complex process that has been linked to conditions including cardiovascular diseases and chronic kidney disease. There is an ongoing debate about whether vitamin K (VK) can effectively prevent VC. To assess the efficiency and safety of VK supplementation in the therapies of VC, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of recent studies.

Methods

We searched major databases, including PubMed, the Cochrane Library, Embase databases, and Web of Science up until August 2022. 14 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) describing the outcomes of treatment for VK supplementation with VC have been included out of 332 studies. The results were reported in the change of coronary artery calcification (CAC) scores, other artery and valve calcification, vascular stiffness, and dephospho-uncarboxylated matrix Gla protein (dp-ucMGP). The reports of severe adverse events were recorded and analyzed.

Results

We reviewed 14 RCTs, comprising a total of 1,533 patients. Our analysis revealed that VK supplementation has a significant effect on CAC scores, slowing down the progression of CAC [I² = 34%, MD= -17.37, 95% CI (-34.18, -0.56), p = 0.04]. The study found that VK supplementation had a significant impact on dp-ucMGP levels, as compared to the control group, where those receiving VK supplementation had lower values [I² = 71%, MD = -243.31, 95% CI (-366.08, -120.53), p = 0.0001]. Additionally, there was no significant difference in the adverse events between the groups [I² = 31%, RR = 0.92, 95% CI (-0.79,1.07), p = 0.29].

Conclusion

VK may have therapeutic potential for alleviating VC, especially CAC. However, more rigorously designed RCTs are required to verify the benefits and efficacy of VK therapy in VC.

The Pleiotropic Role of Vitamin K in Multimorbidity of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Although defined by the presence of airflow obstruction and respiratory symptoms, patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are characterized by multimorbidity. Numerous co-occurring conditions and systemic manifestations contribute to the clinical presentation and progression of COPD; however, underlying mechanisms for multimorbidity are currently not fully elucidated. Vitamin A and vitamin D have been related to COPD pathogenesis. Another fat-soluble vitamin, vitamin K, has been put forward to exert protective roles in COPD. Vitamin K is an unequivocal cofactor for the carboxylation of coagulation factors, but also for extra-hepatic proteins including the soft tissue calcification inhibitor matrix Gla-protein and the bone protein osteocalcin. Additionally, vitamin K has been shown to have anti-oxidant and anti-ferroptosis properties. In this review, we discuss the potential role of vitamin K in the systemic manifestations of COPD. We will elaborate on the effect of vitamin K on prevalent co-occurring chronic conditions in COPD including cardiovascular disorders, chronic kidney disease, osteoporosis, and sarcopenia. Finally, we link these conditions to COPD with vitamin K as a connecting factor and provide recommendations for future clinical studies.

Role of Vitamin K in Bone and Muscle Metabolism

Vitamin K, a cofactor for the γ-glutamyl carboxylase enzyme, is required for the post-translational activation of osteocalcin and matrix Gla protein, which play a key role in bone and muscle homeostasis. In vivo and in vitro models for osteoporosis and sarcopenia suggest the vitamin K could exert a positive effect in both conditions. In bone, it increases osteoblastogenesis, whilst decreases osteoclast formation and function. In muscle, it is associated with increased satellite cell proliferation and migration and might play a role in energy metabolism. Observational trials suggest that high levels of vitamin K are associated with increased bone mineral density and reduced fracture risk. However, interventional studies for vitamin K supplementation yielded conflicting results. Clinical trials in sarcopenia suggest that vitamin K supplementation could improve muscle mass and function. One of the main limitations on the vitamin K studies are the technical challenges to measure its levels in serum. Thus, they are obtained from indirect sources like food questionnaires, or levels of undercarboxylated proteins, which can be affected by other environmental or biological processes. Although current research appoints to a beneficial effect of vitamin K in bone and muscle, further studies overcoming the current limitations are required in order to incorporate this supplementation in the clinical management of patients with osteosarcopenia.

Nutritional Supplements and Complementary Therapies in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) affects 1 in 5 women of reproductive age, and is characterized by menstrual irregularities, clinical or biochemical hyperandrogenism, and the presence of polycystic ovary morphology. One of the recommended treatment strategies in the international evidence-based guidelines is lifestyle modification, which includes diet and exercise, with the aim of improving a range of health outcomes. The incurable nature of PCOS reinforces the importance of developing novel and innovative symptomatic relief strategies, which are currently the only available approaches for improving quality of life for these women. Women with PCOS tend to be nutrient deficient in many common vitamins and minerals, thought to be associated with the psychological (depression, anxiety, etc.) and physiological (insulin resistance, diabetes, infertility, etc.) sequelae of the condition. Nutrient supplementation and the integration of complementary medicine as adjuncts to traditional lifestyle-based therapies in PCOS could therefore provide additional benefits to these women. In this review, we synthesize the evidence regarding nutrient supplementation and complementary therapies in PCOS, predominantly from randomized controlled trials, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses, to provide an overview of the state of knowledge in this field. The evidence to date suggests that specific vitamins (B-12, inositols, folate, vitamins D, E, and K), vitamin-like nutrients (bioflavonoids and α-lipoic acid), minerals (calcium, zinc, selenium, and chromium picolinate), and other formulations (melatonin, ω-3 fatty acids, probiotics, and cinnamon), as well as some complementary approaches such as acupuncture and yoga may be beneficial in PCOS. However, there remain areas of uncertainty and key limitations in the literature that must be overcome before these therapies can be integrated into routine clinical practice.

Role of Vitamin K in Chronic Kidney Disease: A Focus on Bone and Cardiovascular Health

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is commonly associated with vitamin K deficiency. Some of the serious complications of CKD are represented by cardiovascular disease (CVD) and skeletal fragility with an increased risk of morbidity and mortality. A complex pathogenetic link between hormonal and ionic disturbances, bone tissue and metabolism alterations, and vascular calcification (VC) exists and has been defined as chronic kidney disease–mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD). Poor vitamin K status seems to have a key role in the progression of CKD, but also in the onset and advance of both bone and cardiovascular complications. Three forms of vitamin K are currently known: vitamin K1 (phylloquinone), vitamin K2 (menaquinone), and vitamin K3 (menadione). Vitamin K plays different roles, including in activating vitamin K-dependent proteins (VKDPs) and in modulating bone metabolism and contributing to the inhibition of VC. This review focuses on the biochemical and functional characteristics of vitamin K vitamers, suggesting this nutrient as a possible marker of kidney, CV, and bone damage in the CKD population and exploring its potential use for promoting health in this clinical setting. Treatment strategies for CKD-associated osteoporosis and CV disease should include vitamin K supplementation. However, further randomized clinical studies are needed to assess the safety and the adequate dosage to prevent these CKD complications.

Dietary fiber and prevalence of abdominal aortic calcification in the United States (from the national health and nutrition examination survey data [2013-2014])

Background

Abdominal aortic calcification (AAC) is recognized as a valuable predictor of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Dietary fiber is strongly correlated with CVDs. However, the effect of dietary fiber on AAC in the population is not well understood.

Objective

To assess the relationship between dietary fiber intake and AAC in the US adult population.

Methods

A total of 2671 individuals with both dietary fiber intake and AAC score data were enrolled from the 2013–2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), a cross-sectional health examination in the US. Multinomial logistic regression was used to calculate the odds ratio (OR), with 95% confidence interval (CI). To reveal the relationship between dietary fiber intake and AAC, restricted cubic spline was also applied.

Results

Out of the total participants, 241 (9%) had severe AAC and 550 (20%) had mild-moderate AAC. Multinomial logistic regression indicated that higher intake of dietary fiber was associated with lower risk of severe AAC, but not with lower risk of mild-moderate AAC. For every one standard deviation increase (9.4 g/day) in dietary fiber intake, the odds of severe AAC were reduced by 28% [OR 0.72 (95% CI, 0.57–0.90), p = 0.004], after adjusting for confounding factors. Dose–response relationship revealed that dietary fiber intake was negatively correlated with severe AAC (p for linear < 0.001, p for nonlinear = 0.695).

Conclusions

Dietary fiber intake was negatively associated with severe AAC, and showed a dose–response relationship in US adults.

New Therapeutics Targeting Arterial Media Calcification: Friend or Foe for Bone Mineralization?

The presence of arterial media calcification, a highly complex and multifactorial disease, puts patients at high risk for developing serious cardiovascular consequences and mortality. Despite the numerous insights into the mechanisms underlying this pathological mineralization process, there is still a lack of effective treatment therapies interfering with the calcification process in the vessel wall. Current anti-calcifying therapeutics may induce detrimental side effects at the level of the bone, as arterial media calcification is regulated in a molecular and cellular similar way as physiological bone mineralization. This especially is a complication in patients with chronic kidney disease and diabetes, who are the prime targets of this pathology, as they already suffer from a disturbed mineral and bone metabolism. This review outlines recent treatment strategies tackling arterial calcification, underlining their potential to influence the bone mineralization process, including targeting vascular cell transdifferentiation, calcification inhibitors and stimulators, vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) death and oxidative stress: are they a friend or foe? Furthermore, this review highlights nutritional additives and a targeted, local approach as alternative strategies to combat arterial media calcification. Paving a way for the development of effective and more precise therapeutic approaches without inducing osseous side effects is crucial for this highly prevalent and mortal disease.

Role of circulating molecules in age-related cardiovascular and metabolic disorders

Studies analyzing heterochronic parabiosis mice models showed that molecules in the blood of young mice rejuvenate aged mice. Therefore, blood-based therapies have become one of the therapeutic approaches to be considered for age-related diseases. Blood includes numerous biologically active molecules such as proteins, metabolites, hormones, miRNAs, etc. and accumulating evidence indicates some of these change their concentration with chronological aging or age-related disorders. The level of some circulating molecules showed a negative or positive correlation with all-cause mortality, cardiovascular events, or metabolic disorders. Through analyses of clinical/translation/basic research, some molecules were focused on as therapeutic targets. One approach is the supplementation of circulating anti-aging molecules. Favorable results in preclinical studies let some molecules to be tested in humans. These showed beneficial or neutral results, and some were inconsistent. Studies with rodents and humans indicate circulating molecules can be recognized as biomarkers or therapeutic targets mediating their pro-aging or anti-aging effects. Characterization of these molecules with aging, testing their biological effects, and finding mimetics of young systemic milieu continue to be an interesting and important research topic to be explored.

Vitamin K: A vital micronutrient with the cardioprotective potential against diabetes-associated complications

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D). The conventional therapies seem to offer minimal long-term cardioprotection against diabetes-related complications in patients living with T2D. There is a growing interest in understanding the therapeutic effects of food-derived bioactive compounds in protecting or managing these metabolic diseases. This includes uncovering the therapeutic potential of fat-soluble micronutrients such as vitamin K, which are abundantly found in green leafy vegetables. We searched the major electronic databases including PubMed, Web of Sciences, Scopus, Google Scholar and Science direct. The search retrieved randomized clinical trials and preclinical studies, reporting on the impact of vitamin K on CVD-related complications in T2D. The current review updates clinical evidence on the therapeutic benefits of vitamin K by attenuating CVD-risk factors such as blood lipid profiles, blood pressure, as well as markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in patients with T2D. Importantly, the summarized preclinical evidence provides a unique perspective into the pathophysiological mechanisms that could be targeted by vitamin K in the primary prevention of T2D-related complications. Lastly, this review further explores the controversies related to the cardioprotective effects of vitamin K, and also provides the basic information such as the source and bioavailability profile of this micronutrient is covered to highlight its therapeutic potential.

Vitamin K2-a neglected player in cardiovascular health: a narrative review

Vitamin K₂ serves an important role in cardiovascular health through regulation of calcium homeostasis. Its effects on the cardiovascular system are mediated through activation of the anti-calcific protein known as matrix Gla protein. In its inactive form, this protein is associated with various markers of cardiovascular disease including increased arterial stiffness, vascular and valvular calcification, insulin resistance and heart failure indices which ultimately increase cardiovascular mortality. Supplementation of vitamin K₂ has been strongly associated with improved cardiovascular outcomes through its modification of systemic calcification and arterial stiffness. Although its direct effects on delaying the progression of vascular and valvular calcification is currently the subject of multiple randomised clinical trials, prior reports suggest potential improved survival among cardiac patients with vitamin K₂ supplementation. Strengthened by its affordability and Food and Drug Adminstration (FDA)-proven safety, vitamin K₂ supplementation is a viable and promising option to improve cardiovascular outcomes.

Vitamin K and cardiovascular complications in CKD patients

Vitamin K, well known for its role in coagulation, encompasses two major subgroups: Vitamin K1 is exclusively synthesized by plants, whereas vitamin K2 mostly originates from bacterial synthesis. Vitamin K serves as a cofactor for the enzyme γ-glutamyl carboxylase, which carboxylates and thereby activates various vitamin K dependent proteins. Several vitamin K-dependent proteins are synthesized in bone but the role of vitamin K for bone health in CKD patients, in particular the prevention of osteoporosis is still not firmly established. Here we focus on another prominent action of vitamin K, in particular vitamin K2, namely the activation of matrix Gla protein (MGP), the most potent inhibitor of cardiovascular calcifications. Multiple observational studies link relative vitamin K deficiency or low intake to cardiovascular calcification progress, morbidity and mortality. Patients with advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD) are particularly vitamin K deficient, in part because of dietary restrictions but possibly also due to impaired endogenous recycling of vitamin K. At the same time this population is characterized by markedly accelerated cardiovascular calcifications and mortality. High dose dietary supplementation with vitamin K2, in particular the most potent form menaquinone-7 (MK7), can potently reduce circulating levels of dephosphorylated uncarboxylated, i.e. inactive MGP in patients with end stage kidney disease. However, despite this compelling data basis, several randomized controlled trials with high dose MK7 supplements in patients with advanced CKD have failed to confirm cardiovascular benefits. Here we discuss potential reasons and solutions for this.

Vitamin D: Not Just Bone Metabolism but a Key Player in Cardiovascular Diseases

Vitamin D is the first item of drug expenditure for the treatment of osteoporosis. Its deficiency is a condition that affects not only older individuals but also young people. Recently, the scientific community has focused its attention on the possible role of vitamin D in the development of several chronic diseases such as cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. This review aims to highlight the possible role of vitamin D in cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. In particular, here we examine (1) the role of vitamin D in diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, and obesity, and its influence on insulin secretion; (2) its role in atherosclerosis, in which chronic vitamin D deficiency, lower than 20 ng/mL (50 nmol/L), has emerged among the new risk factors; (3) the role of vitamin D in essential hypertension, in which low plasma levels of vitamin D have been associated with both an increase in the prevalence of hypertension and diastolic hypertension; (4) the role of vitamin D in peripheral arteriopathies and aneurysmal pathology, reporting that patients with peripheral artery diseases had lower vitamin D values than non-suffering PAD controls; (5) the genetic and epigenetic role of vitamin D, highlighting its transcriptional regulation capacity; and (6) the role of vitamin D in cardiac remodeling and disease. Despite the many observational studies and meta-analyses supporting the critical role of vitamin D in cardiovascular physiopathology, clinical trials designed to evaluate the specific role of vitamin D in cardiovascular disease are scarce. The characterization of the importance of vitamin D as a marker of pathology should represent a future research challenge.

Effects of vitamin K2 supplementation on atherogenic status of individuals with type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled trial

Background

This study was aimed to examine the effects of vitamin K2 supplementation on atherogenic status, assessed by insulin resistance (IR)-related indexes, in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

Methods

In this double-blind, controlled trial, 68 patients with T2DM on the oral glucose-lowering medications were randomly allocated into two groups receiving daily intakes of 360 μg MK-7 or placebo for 12 weeks. Eight different IR-related indexes were calculated at the baseline and end of the trial.

Results

At the end of the study, atherogenic coefficient (mean ± SD: − 0.21 ± 0.45 vs. 0.02 ± 0.43; p = 0.043), triglyceride-glucose index (8.88 ± 0.55 vs. 9.23 ± 0.69; p = 0.029), and atherogenic index of plasma (0.37 ± 0.27 vs. 0.51 ± 0.24; p = 0.031) were significantly lower in the vitamin K2 group, compared to the placebo. However, after accounting for their baseline values, the differences were no more significant. No significant differences were observed in Castelli’s Ӏ and ӀӀ risk indexes, the ratio of triglycerides to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, lipoprotein combine index, and the metabolic score for insulin resistance index between the two groups at the end of the study.

Conclusions

Daily intakes of 360 μg vitamin K2 in the form of MK-7 for 12 weeks could not improve the IR-related indexes of Cardiovascular Diseases risk.

Trial registration

The trial was registered on Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials registry (Trial ID. IRCT20190824044592N1) on 22 December 2019. The record can be found at https://en.irct.ir/trial/41728.

Vitamin K and vascular calcification

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Vascular calcification is a common and important cardiovascular risk factor in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Recent advances in the understanding of the biology of vascular calcification implicate vitamin K-dependent proteins as important regulators in this process. This review highlights recent key advances in vascular biology, epidemiology, and clinical trials in this rapidly evolving field.

RECENT FINDINGS

Vitamin K deficiency is associated with increasing severity of vascular calcification among patients with CKD, but the relationship with cardiovascular disease and mortality is inconsistent. Vitamin K may reduce calcification propensity by improving the activity of vitamin K-dependent calcification inhibitors or by down-regulating components of the innate immune system to reduce inflammation. However, recent randomized controlled trials in patients with diabetes, CKD, renal transplant, and on hemodialysis have failed to demonstrate improvement in vascular calcification or stiffness after vitamin K treatment.

SUMMARY

Current evidence does not support a clinically useful role for vitamin K supplementation to prevent or reverse vascular calcification in patients with CKD. Knowledge gaps remain, particularly whether higher doses of vitamin K, longer duration of supplementations, or use a vitamin K as a part of a package of measures to counteract vascular calcification might be effective.

The Dual Role of Vitamin K2 in "Bone-Vascular Crosstalk": Opposite Effects on Bone Loss and Vascular Calcification

Osteoporosis (OP) and vascular calcification (VC) represent relevant health problems that frequently coexist in the elderly population. Traditionally, they have been considered independent processes, and mainly age-related. However, an increasing number of studies have reported their possible direct correlation, commonly defined as “bone-vascular crosstalk”. Vitamin K2 (VitK2), a family of several natural isoforms also known as menaquinones (MK), has recently received particular attention for its role in maintaining calcium homeostasis. In particular, VitK2 deficiency seems to be responsible of the so-called “calcium paradox” phenomenon, characterized by low calcium deposition in the bone and its accumulation in the vessel wall. Since these events may have important clinical consequences, and the role of VitK2 in bone-vascular crosstalk has only partially been explained, this review focuses on its effects on the bone and vascular system by providing a more recent literature update. Overall, the findings reported here propose the VitK2 family as natural bioactive molecules that could be able to play an important role in the prevention of bone loss and vascular calcification, thus encouraging further in-depth studies to achieve its use as a dietary food supplement.