Protective effects of haloperidol and clozapine on energy-deprived OLN-93 oligodendrocytes

Neuroreceptor Inhibition by Clozapine Triggers Mitohormesis and Metabolic Reprogramming in Human Blood Cells

The antipsychotic drug clozapine demonstrates superior efficacy in treatment-resistant schizophrenia, but its intracellular mode of action is not completely understood. Here, we analysed the effects of clozapine (2.5-20 µM) on metabolic fluxes, cell respiration, and intracellular ATP in human HL60 cells. Some results were confirmed in leukocytes of clozapine-treated patients. Neuroreceptor inhibition under clozapine reduced Akt activation with decreased glucose uptake, thereby inducing ER stress and the unfolded protein response (UPR). Metabolic profiling by liquid-chromatography/mass-spectrometry revealed downregulation of glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway, thereby saving glucose to keep the electron transport chain working. Mitochondrial respiration was dampened by upregulation of the F0F1-ATPase inhibitory factor 1 (IF1) leading to 30-40% lower oxygen consumption in HL60 cells. Blocking IF1 expression by cotreatment with epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) increased apoptosis of HL60 cells. Upregulation of the mitochondrial citrate carrier shifted excess citrate to the cytosol for use in lipogenesis and for storage as triacylglycerol in lipid droplets (LDs). Accordingly, clozapine-treated HL60 cells and leukocytes from clozapine-treated patients contain more LDs than untreated cells. Since mitochondrial disturbances are described in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, clozapine-induced mitohormesis is an excellent way to escape energy deficits and improve cell survival.

The Effects of Antipsychotics in Experimental Models of Krabbe Disease

The role of altered myelin in the onset and development of schizophrenia and changes in myelin due to antipsychotics remains unclear. Antipsychotics are D₂ receptor antagonists, yet D₂ receptor agonists increase oligodendrocyte progenitor numbers and limit oligodendrocyte injury. Conflicting studies suggest these drugs promote the differentiation of neural progenitors to oligodendrocyte lineage, while others report antipsychotics inhibit the proliferation and differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursors. Here, we utilised in-vitro (human astrocytes), ex-vivo (organotypic slice cultures) and in-vivo (twitcher mouse model) experimental study designs of psychosine-induced demyelination, a toxin that accumulates in Krabbe disease (KD), to investigate direct effects of antipsychotics on glial cell dysfunction and demyelination. Typical and atypical antipsychotics, and selective D₂ and 5HT_2A receptor antagonists, attenuated psychosine-induced cell viability, toxicity, and morphological aberrations in human astrocyte cultures. Haloperidol and clozapine reduced psychosine-induced demyelination in mouse organotypic cerebellar slices. These drugs also attenuated the effects of psychosine on astrocytes and microglia and restored non-phosphorylated neurofilament levels, indicating neuroprotective effects. In the demyelinating twitcher mouse model of KD, haloperidol improved mobility and significantly increased the survival of these animals. Overall, this study suggests that antipsychotics directly regulate glial cell dysfunction and exert a protective effect on myelin loss. This work also points toward the potential use of these pharmacological agents in KD.

Nimodipine Exerts Beneficial Effects on the Rat Oligodendrocyte Cell Line OLN-93

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Therapy is currently limited to drugs that interfere with the immune system; treatment options that primarily mediate neuroprotection and prevent neurodegeneration are not available. Here, we studied the effects of nimodipine on the rat cell line OLN-93, which resembles young mature oligodendrocytes. Nimodipine is a dihydropyridine that blocks the voltage-gated L-type calcium channel family members Cav1.2 and Cav1.3. Our data show that the treatment of OLN-93 cells with nimodipine induced the upregulation of myelin genes, in particular of proteolipid protein 1 (Plp1), which was confirmed by a significantly greater expression of PLP1 in immunofluorescence analysis and the presence of myelin structures in the cytoplasm at the ultrastructural level. Whole-genome RNA sequencing additionally revealed the upregulation of genes that are involved in neuroprotection, remyelination, and antioxidation pathways. Interestingly, the observed effects were independent of Cav1.2 and Cav1.3 because OLN-93 cells do not express these channels, and there was no measurable response pattern in patch-clamp analysis. Taking into consideration previous studies that demonstrated a beneficial effect of nimodipine on microglia, our data support the notion that nimodipine is an interesting drug candidate for the treatment of MS and other demyelinating diseases.

Laser Direct Writing via Two-Photon Polymerization of 3D Hierarchical Structures with Cells-Antiadhesive Properties

We report the design and fabrication by laser direct writing via two photons polymerization of innovative hierarchical structures with cell-repellency capability. The structures were designed in the shape of “mushrooms”, consisting of an underside (mushroom’s leg) acting as a support structure and a top side (mushroom’s hat) decorated with micro- and nanostructures. A ripple-like pattern was created on top of the mushrooms, over length scales ranging from several µm (microstructured mushroom-like pillars, MMP) to tens of nm (nanostructured mushroom-like pillars, NMP). The MMP and NMP structures were hydrophobic, with contact angles of (127 ± 2)° and (128 ± 4)°, respectively, whereas flat polymer surfaces were hydrophilic, with a contact angle of (43 ± 1)°. The cell attachment on NMP structures was reduced by 55% as compared to the controls, whereas for the MMP, a reduction of only 21% was observed. Moreover, the MMP structures preserved the native spindle-like with phyllopodia cellular shape, whereas the cells from NMP structures showed a round shape and absence of phyllopodia. Overall, the NMP structures were more effective in impeding the cellular attachment and affected the cell shape to a greater extent than the MMP structures. The influence of the wettability on cell adhesion and shape was less important, the cellular behavior being mainly governed by structures’ topography.

Resveratrol ameliorates the effect of maternal immune activation associated with schizophrenia in adulthood offspring

Maternal exposure to infectious agents such as arboviruses, bacteria, or other protozoans has been associated with an elevated risk of schizophrenia (SZ). Evidence suggests that immunological processes occurring during infection may disturb the neural progenitor, impacting the central nervous system (CNS) functions. Moreover, growing evidence suggests that resveratrol (RSV) has neuroprotective activity through anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. Therefore, we investigated if the treatment with RSV during pregnancy would prevent the abnormalities associated with a SZ-like phenotype induced by maternal immune activation (MIA). Pregnant dams stimulated with a subcutaneous (s.c.) injection of polyriboinosinic-polyribocytidylic acid (poly I:C; 50 mg/kg), a viral nucleic acid mimetic or vehicle, on gestational day (GD) 12.5, were treated with RSV (40 mg/kg, s.c.) or saline, from GD 9.5 to GD 14.5. On day 45 after birth, the offspring was evaluated using a three-compartment social interaction test, elevated plus maze, and hyperlocomotion test induced by amphetamine. After the behavioral tests, the relative expression of mRNA to synapsin 1 (Syn1), oligodendrocyte transcription factor 1 (Olig1), and SRY (sex-determining region Y)-box 2 (Sox2) was determined in the hippocampus and cortex. Treatment with RSV restored the social behavior and attenuated the hyperlocomotion of the offspring bred by dams submitted to MIA. RSV prevented the effects of MIA on Syn1 and Olig1 expression in the hippocampus and Syn1 in the cortex. The present study showed that maternal treatment with RSV attenuates some of the negative behavioral impacts caused by MIA, with modulation of synaptic and oligodendrogenesis processes.

Perineuronal oligodendrocytes in health and disease: the journey so far

Perineuronal oligodendrocytes (pn-Ols) are located in the cerebral gray matter in close proximity to neuronal perikarya and less frequently near dendrites and neurites. Although their morphology is indistinguishable from that of other oligodendrocytes, it is not known if pn-Ols have a similar or different cell signature from that of typical myelinating oligodendroglial cells. In this review, we discussed the potential roles of these cells in myelination under normal and pathophysiologic conditions as functional and nutritional supporters of neurons, as restrainers of neuronal firing, and as possible players in glutamate-glutamine homeostasis. We also highlighted the occurrences in which perineuronal oligodendroglia are altered, such as in experimental demyelination, multiple sclerosis, cerebral ischemia, epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, schizophrenia, major depression, and bipolar disorder.

Reduced oligodendrocyte density in layer 5 of the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia

Neuroimaging and post-mortem studies have implicated altered myelin integrity and oligodendrocyte abnormalities in the dysfunction of neuronal network in schizophrenia, including the prefrontal cortex, Brodmann area (BA) 10. Pyramidal neurons in layer 5 of BA10 are the important link of reciprocal frontal cortical-basal ganglia-thalamic circuits altered in schizophrenia. Previously, we found ultrastructural dystrophic and degenerative alterations of oligodendrocytes in layer 5 of BA10 in schizophrenia. The aim of the study was to estimate the numerical density (Nv) of oligodendrocytes in layer 5 of BA10 in schizophrenia as compared to normal controls. 17 chronic schizophrenia subjects and 22 healthy matched controls were studied in Nissl-stained sections using optical disector method. Group differences were analyzed using ANCOVA followed by post hoc Duncan's test. The Nv of oligodendrocytes was significantly lower (- 32%, p < 0.001) in the schizophrenia group as compared to the control group. Young controls (age < 50 years old) showed significantly higher Nv of oligodendrocytes as compared to elderly controls (age > 50 years old). Young and elderly schizophrenia subgroups did not differ significantly. Both control subgroups have significantly higher Nv of oligodendrocytes as compared to the schizophrenia subgroups. Decreased Nv of oligodendrocytes found in layer 5 of BA10 may be the result of dystrophic and destructive alterations and/or disrupted development of oligodendrocytes in schizophrenia.

Neurofibromatosis type 2 tumor suppressor protein is expressed in oligodendrocytes and regulates cell proliferation and process formation

The neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2) tumor suppressor protein Merlin functions as a negative regulator of cell growth and actin dynamics in different cell types amongst which Schwann cells have been extensively studied. In contrast, the presence and the role of Merlin in oligodendrocytes, the myelin forming cells within the CNS, have not been elucidated. In this work, we demonstrate that Merlin immunoreactivity was broadly distributed in the white matter throughout the central nervous system. Following Merlin expression during development in the cerebellum, Merlin could be detected in the cerebellar white matter tract at early postnatal stages as shown by its co-localization with Olig2-positive cells as well as in adult brain sections where it was aligned with myelin basic protein containing fibers. This suggests that Merlin is expressed in immature and mature oligodendrocytes. Expression levels of Merlin were low in oligodendrocytes as compared to astrocytes and neurons throughout development. Expression of Merlin in oligodendroglia was further supported by its identification in either immortalized cell lines of oligodendroglial origin or in primary oligodendrocyte cultures. In these cultures, the two main splice variants of Nf2 could be detected. Merlin was localized in clusters within the nuclei and in the cytoplasm. Overexpressing Merlin in oligodendrocyte cell lines strengthened reduced impedance in XCELLigence measurements and Ki67 stainings in cultures over time. In addition, the initiation and elongation of cellular projections were reduced by Merlin overexpression. Consistently, cell migration was retarded in scratch assays done on Nf2-transfected oligodendrocyte cell lines. These data suggest that Merlin actively modulates process outgrowth and migration in oligodendrocytes.

Ultrastructural alterations of oligodendrocytes in prefrontal white matter in schizophrenia: A post-mortem morphometric study

OBJECTIVE

Neuroimaging studies showed abnormalities in frontal white matter (WM) in schizophrenia that were associated with clinical symptoms. Previously, we reported ultrastructural alterations of myelinated fibers and reduction in the numerical density of oligodendrocytes in BA 10 WM in patients with schizophrenia. We aimed to perform a qualitative and morphometric study of the ultrastructure of oligodendrocytes in BA 10 WM in schizophrenia and in normal controls.

METHODS

The study was performed using electron microscopy and morphometry. Size, volume density (Vv) and the number (N) of organelles of oligodendrocytes were estimated in 21 patients with schizophrenia and 20 normal controls. The data were examined using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for normality. Pearson correlation analysis was performed to assess possible correlations between the parameters measured and age, post-mortem interval, neuroleptic treatment and duration of the disease. Comparisons between the schizophrenia patients and controls were performed using ANCOVA tests.

RESULTS

We found oligodendrocyte swelling, vacuolation, paucity of ribosomes and mitochondria and accumulation of lipofuscin granules in schizophrenia as compared to controls. Morphometry detected a significant reduction in Vv and N of mitochondria and the increase in Vv and N of lipofuscin granules and vacuoles in oligodendrocytes in the schizophrenic group as compared to controls.

CONCLUSION

Alterations of oligodendrocytes in schizophrenia provide evidence for the disturbance of their energy, lipid and protein metabolism in prefrontal WM. Oligodendrocyte abnormalities might disturb axonal integrity and circuitry and contribute to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia.

Oligodendrocyte and Interneuron Density in Hippocampal Subfields in Schizophrenia and Association of Oligodendrocyte Number with Cognitive Deficits

In schizophrenia, previous stereological post-mortem investigations of anterior, posterior, and total hippocampal subfields showed no alterations in total neuron number but did show decreased oligodendrocyte numbers in CA4, an area that corresponds to the polymorph layer of the dentate gyrus (DG). However, these investigations identified oligodendrocytes only on the basis of morphological criteria in Nissl staining and did not assess alterations of interneurons with immunohistochemical markers. Moreover, the association of findings in the posterior hippocampus with cognitive deficits remains unknown. On the basis of the available clinical records, we compared patients with definite and possible cognitive dysfunction; nine patients had evidence in their records of either definite (n = 4) or possible (n = 5) cognitive dysfunction. Additionally, we assessed the density of two oligodendrocyte subpopulations immunostained by the oligodendrocyte transcription factors Olig1 and Olig2 and of interneurons immunolabeled by parvalbumin. We investigated posterior hippocampal subregions in the post-mortem brains of the same schizophrenia patients (SZ; n = 10) and healthy controls (n = 10) we examined in our previously published stereological studies. Our stereological studies found that patients with definite cognitive deficits had decreased total/Nissl-stained oligodendrocyte numbers in the left (p = 0.014) and right (p = 0.050) CA4, left CA2/3 (p = 0.050), left CA1 (p = 0.027), and left (p = 0.050) and right (p = 0.014) subiculum of the anterior part of the hippocampus compared to patients with possible cognitive deficits. In the present study, we found no significant influence of definite cognitive deficits in the posterior part of the hippocampus, whereas in the entire hippocampus SZ with definite cognitive deficits showed decreased oligodendrocyte numbers in the left (p = 0.050) and right (p = 0.050) DG and left CA2/3 (p = 0.050). We did not find significant differences in Olig1-, Olig2-, or parvalbumin-positive cell density between SZ and controls in any of the subregions of the posterior hippocampus. Based on the results from our stereological study we hypothesize that a decreased number of oligodendrocytes in the anterior and entire hippocampus may be involved in cognitive deficits by impairing the connectivity of this structure in schizophrenia. In the posterior hippocampus, we could not replicate previously reported findings of decreased interneurons from the entire hippocampus.

Pharmacological targeting of redox regulation systems as new therapeutic approach for psychiatric disorders: A literature overview

Redox dysregulation occurs following a disequilibrium between reactive oxygen species (ROS) producing and degrading systems, i.e. mitochondria, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidases and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) on one hand and the principal antioxidant system, the glutathione, on the other hand. Increasing recent evidence points towards a pathogenetic role of an altered redox state in the development of several mental disorders, such as anxiety, bipolar disorders, depression, psychosis, autism and post-traumaticstress disorders (PTSD). In this regard, pharmacological targeting of the redox state regulating systems in the brain has been proposed as an innovative and promising therapeutic approach for the treatment of these mental diseases. This review will summarize current knowledge obtained from both pre-clinical and clinical studies in order to descant "lights and shadows" of targeting pharmacologically both the producing and degrading reactive oxygen species (ROS) systems in psychiatric disorders.

Glial cells as key players in schizophrenia pathology: recent insights and concepts of therapy

The past decade has witnessed an explosion of knowledge on the impact of glia for the neurobiological foundation of schizophrenia. A plethora of studies have shown structural and functional abnormalities in all three types of glial cells. There is convincing evidence of reduced numbers of oligodendrocytes, impaired cell maturation and altered gene expression of myelin/oligodendrocyte-related genes that may in part explain white matter abnormalities and disturbed inter- and intra-hemispheric connectivity, which are characteristic signs of schizophrenia. Earlier reports of astrogliosis could not be confirmed by later studies, although the expression of a variety of astrocyte-related genes is abnormal in psychosis. Since astrocytes play a key role in the synaptic metabolism of glutamate, GABA, monoamines and purines, astrocyte dysfunction may contribute to certain aspects of disturbed neurotransmission in schizophrenia. Finally, increased densities of microglial cells and aberrant expression of microglia-related surface markers in schizophrenia suggest that immunological/inflammatory factors are of considerable relevance for the pathophysiology of psychosis. This review describes current evidence for the multifaceted role of glial cells in schizophrenia and discusses efforts to develop glia-directed therapies for the treatment of the disease.

Clozapine promotes glycolysis and myelin lipid synthesis in cultured oligodendrocytes

Clozapine displays stronger systemic metabolic side effects than haloperidol and it has been hypothesized that therapeutic antipsychotic and adverse metabolic effects of these drugs are related. Considering that cerebral disconnectivity through oligodendrocyte dysfunction has been implicated in schizophrenia, it is important to determine the effect of these drugs on oligodendrocyte energy metabolism and myelin lipid production. Effects of clozapine and haloperidol on glucose and myelin lipid metabolism were evaluated and compared in cultured OLN-93 oligodendrocytes. First, glycolytic activity was assessed by measurement of extra- and intracellular glucose and lactate levels. Next, the expression of glucose (GLUT) and monocarboxylate (MCT) transporters was determined after 6 and 24 h. And finally mitochondrial respiration, acetyl-CoA carboxylase, free fatty acids, and expression of the myelin lipid galactocerebroside were analyzed. Both drugs altered oligodendrocyte glucose metabolism, but in opposite directions. Clozapine improved the glucose uptake, production and release of lactate, without altering GLUT and MCT. In contrast, haloperidol led to higher extracellular levels of glucose and lower levels of lactate, suggesting reduced glycolysis. Antipsychotics did not alter significantly the number of functionally intact mitochondria, but clozapine enhanced the efficacy of oxidative phosphorylation and expression of galactocerebroside. Our findings support the superior impact of clozapine on white matter integrity in schizophrenia as previously observed, suggesting that this drug improves the energy supply and myelin lipid synthesis in oligodendrocytes. Characterizing the underlying signal transduction pathways may pave the way for novel oligodendrocyte-directed schizophrenia therapies.

Evidence for morphological alterations in prefrontal white matter glia in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder

BACKGROUND

Brain imaging studies suggest that volume reductions and compromised white matter integrity occur in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder (BD). However, the cellular correlates have not yet been identified. To address this issue we assessed oligodendrocyte, astrocyte and microglial populations in postmortem white matter from schizophrenia, BD and nonpsychiatric control samples.

METHODS

The density, areal fraction and spatial distribution of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-expressing astrocytes and ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule-1 (IBA-1)-expressing microglia as well as the density, nuclear size and spatial distribution of Nissl-stained oligodendrocytes were quantified in postmortem white matter adjacent to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Brodmann area 9) in schizophrenia, BD and control samples (n = 20). In addition, the oligodendrocyte-associated proteins myelin basic protein and 2,3-cyclic-nucleotide 3-phosphodiesterase (CNPase) were quantified in the same samples by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunoblotting.

RESULTS

Oligodendrocyte density (p = 0.012) and CNPase protein levels (p = 0.038) differed between groups, being increased in BD compared with control samples. The GFAP area fraction (p = 0.05) and astrocyte spatial distribution (p = 0.040) also differed between groups, reflecting decreased area fraction and increased cell clustering in both schizophrenia and BD samples.

LIMITATIONS

Oligodendrocytes were identified using morphological criteria.

CONCLUSION

This study provides evidence for glial pathology in prefrontal white matter in schizophrenia and BD. Changes in oligodendrocyte and astrocyte populations in white matter in the major psychiatric disorders may reflect disruptions in structural or metabolic support of axons.

Increased nuclear Olig1-expression in the pregenual anterior cingulate white matter of patients with major depression: a regenerative attempt to compensate oligodendrocyte loss?

BACKGROUND

Structural and functional oligodendrocyte deficits as well as impaired myelin integrity have been described in affective disorders and schizophrenia, and may disturb the connectivity between disease-relevant brain regions. Olig1, an oligodendroglial transcription factor, might be important in this context, but has not been systematically studied so far.

METHODS

Nissl- and Olig1-stained oligodendrocytes were quantified in the pregenual anterior cingulate (pACC)/dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), and adjacent white matter of patients with major depressive disorder (MDD, n = 9), bipolar disorder (BD, n = 8), schizophrenia (SZ, n = 13), and matched controls (n = 16). Potential downstream effects of increased Olig1-expression were analyzed. Antidepressant drug effects on Olig1-expression were further explored in OLN-93 oligodendrocyte cultures.

RESULTS

Nissl-stainings of both white matter regions showed a 19-27% reduction of total oligodendrocyte densities in MDD and BD, but not in SZ. In contrast, nuclear Olig1-immunoreactivity was elevated in MDD in the pACC-adjacent white matter (left: p = 0.008; right: p = 0.018); this effect tended to increase with antidepressant dosage (r = 0.631, p = 0.069). This reactive increase of Olig1 was confirmed by partly dose-dependent effects of imipramine and amitriptyline in oligodendrocyte cultures. Correspondingly, MBP expression in the pACC-adjacent white matter tended to increase with antidepressant dosage (r = 0.637, p = 0.065). Other tested brain regions showed no diagnosis-dependent differences regarding Olig1-immunoreactivity.

CONCLUSIONS

Since nuclear Olig1-expression marks oligodendrocyte precursor cells, its increased expression along with reduced total oligodendrocyte densities (Nissl-stained) in the pACC-adjacent white matter of MDD patients might indicate a (putatively medication-boosted) regenerative attempt to compensate oligodendrocyte loss.

Improving myelin/oligodendrocyte-related dysfunction: a new mechanism of antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia?

Schizophrenia is a severe psychiatric disorder with complex clinical manifestations and its aetiological factors remain unclear. During the past decade, the oligodendrocyte-related myelin dysfunction was proposed as a hypothesis for schizophrenia, supported initially by a series of neuroimaging studies and genetic evidence. Recently, the effects of antipsychotics on myelination and oligodendroglial lineage development and their underlying molecular mechanisms were evaluated. Data from those studies suggest that the antipsychotics-resulting improvement in myelin/oligodendrocyte-related dysfunction may contribute, at least in part, to their therapeutic effect on schizophrenia. Importantly, these findings may provide the basis for a new insight into the therapeutic strategy by targeting the oligodendroglia lineage cells against schizophrenia.

Translational strategies to schizophrenia from a proteomic perspective

There is an urgent necessity of designing translational strategies to schizophrenia, a mental disorder that affects 30 million people worldwide. Proteomic studies have been providing data enough to pave the way for that, but these need to be connected in a concise manner in order to translate laboratorial findings to real improvements in the lives of the patients.

Translational strategies to schizophrenia from a proteomic perspective

There is an urgent necessity of designing translational strategies to schizophrenia, a mental disorder that affects 30 million people worldwide. Proteomic studies have been providing data enough to pave the way for that, but these need to be connected in a concise manner in order to translate laboratorial findings to real improvements in the lives of the patients.

Age-related increase in the number of oligodendrocytes is dysregulated in schizophrenia and mood disorders

The postnatal maturation of the human prefrontal cortex is associated with substantial increase of number of oligodendrocytes. Previously, we reported decreased numerical density of oligodendrocytes in the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia and mood disorders. To gain further understanding of the role oligodendrocytes in pathogenesis of schizophrenia and mood disorders, we examined the effect of the age on the number of oligodendrocytes in the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder. We revealed the age-related increase in numerical density of oligodendrocytes in layer VI and adjacent white matter of BA10 and BA 9 in normal controls but not in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder. The absence of normal increase in the number of oligodendrocytes in gray and white matter with age in schizophrenia and mood disorders suggests that age-related process of oligodendrocyte increase is dysregulated in schizophrenia and mood disorders.