Acute neurosurgery for traumatic brain injury by general surgeons in Swedish county hospitals: a regional study

Clinimetric study and review of the Reaction Level Scale

OBJECTIVES

Although the Reaction Level Scale (RLS) is still used for the assessment of the level of consciousness in distinct centers, its clinical characteristics and significance have been incompletely researched. In the current study, the clinimetric properties, the prognostic value, and the impact of the raters' background on the application of the RLS, in comparison with the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), are investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A systematic review on the available clinical evidence for the RLS was first carried out. Next, the RLS was translated into Greek, and patients with neurosurgical pathologies in need of consciousness monitoring were independently assessed with both RLS and GCS, by four raters (two consultants, one resident, and one nurse) within one hour. Interrater reliability, construct validity, and predictive value (mortality and poor outcome, at discharge and at 6 months) were evaluated.

RESULTS

Literature review retrieved 9 clinimetric studies related to the RLS, most of low quality, indicating that the scale has not been thoroughly studied. Both versions of the RLS (original and modified) showed high interrater reliability (κ_w >0.80 for all pairs of raters), construct validity (Spearman's p > .90 for all raters), and prognostic value (areas under the curve >0.85 for all raters and outcomes). However, except for broader patients' coverage, it failed to show any advantage over the GCS.

CONCLUSIONS

The RLS has not succeeded in showing any advantage over the GCS in terms of reliability and validity. Available evidence cannot justify its use in clinical practice as a substitute to the widely applied GCS.

Emergency Neurosurgery Performed by General Surgeons: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

In under-resourced settings, general surgeons may be called upon to perform emergency operations within other specialties. Accordingly, we aimed to characterise patient outcomes after emergency neurosurgery performed by a general surgeon or general surgery trainee.

METHODS

PubMed, Embase and the Cochrane Library were searched to 30 May 2021 for observational studies reporting outcomes after emergency neurosurgery performed by a general surgeon. Study screening, data extraction, and risk of bias using the Downs and Black checklist were performed in duplicate. Data on setting, operation undertaken, mortality rates and complications were extracted. Meta-analysis was planned but not possible due to heterogeneity. This study is registered with PROSPERO, CRD42021258097.

RESULTS

From 632 records, 14 retrospective observational studies were included, covering a total sample of 1,988 operations. Four studies were from Australia, and the remaining 10 were, respectively, from 10 other countries. Most common operations performed were decompressive surgery with burr holes or craniectomy for head trauma and insertion of intracranial pressure monitors. Rural hospitals were the most common settings. Mortality rates for procedures performed by general surgeons at latest follow-up were heterogenous, ranging from 5% for evacuation of chronic subdural haematoma in Kenya to 81% in head injured patients in a Hong Kong study.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first systematic review that synthesises the literature to characterise patient outcomes after neurosurgical operations performed by a general surgeon. Findings from this study may benefit global surgery performed in rural, remote, military or humanitarian settings.

Case Series of Neurotrauma Managed by General Surgeon at Ladakh - The Highest Plateau State of India

Trauma including neurotrauma is one of the major killers in the world. The health infrastructure in developing countries has a huge disparity, with super specialist care confined to big cities only. Adding to this problem is factors like poverty, poor road condition and no organised emergency evacuation system. The utopian scenario where specialist and infrastructure are made available in every village is a distant dream. So at present, the most feasible and cost-effective way to prevent death due to neurotrauma in rural and remote setting is putting the general surgeon working in remote area at the forefront. Our study is an effort in this direction and is reporting operative management of patients with neurotrauma in remote high-altitude Ladakh. So today, the need of hour is continuing skill enhancement training for capacity building of rural surgeon, where they are trained to do burr hole and craniotomy for reducing mortality and morbidity from neurotrauma.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12262-021-03002-x.

Intracranial pressure variability: relation to clinical outcome, intracranial pressure-volume index, cerebrovascular reactivity and blood pressure variability

It was recently found in traumatic brain injury (TBI) that ICP variability (ICPV) predicted favorable outcome. We hypothesized that ICPV may depend on intracranial compliance, unstable blood pressure and cerebral vasomotion. In this study, we aimed to further investigate the explanatory variables for ICPV and its relation to outcome. Data from 362 TBI patients were retrospectively analyzed day 2 to 5 post-injury. ICPV was evaluated in three ways. First, variability in the sub-minute time interval (similar to B waves) was calculated as the amplitude of the ICP slow waves using a bandpass filter, limiting the analysis to oscillations of 55 to 15 s (ICP AMP 55-15). The second and third ICPV measures were calculated as the deviation from the mean ICP averaged over 30 min (ICPV-30m) and 4 h (ICPV-4h), respectively. All ICPV measures were associated with a reduced intracranial pressure/volume state (high ICP and RAP) and high blood pressure variability in multiple linear regression analyses. Higher ICPV was associated with better pressure reactivity in the univariate, but not the multiple analyses. All ICPV measures were associated with favorable outcome in univariate analysis, but only ICP AMP 55-15 and ICPV-30m did so in the multiple logistic regression analysis. Higher ICPV can be explained by a reduced intracranial compliance and variations in cerebral blood volume due to the vessel response to unstable blood pressure. As ICP AMP 55-15 and ICPV-30m independently predicted favorable outcome, it may represent general cerebral vessel activity, associated with better cerebral blood flow regulation and less secondary insults.

Clinical outcome and prognostic factors in elderly traumatic brain injury patients receiving neurointensive care

Background

The probability of favorable outcome after traumatic brain injury (TBI) decreases with age. Elderly, ≥ 60 years, are an increasing part of our population. Recent studies have shown an increase of favorable outcome in elderly over time. However, the optimal patient selection and neurointensive care (NIC) treatments may differ in the elderly and the young. The aims of this study were to examine outcome in a larger group of elderly TBI patients receiving NIC and to identify demographic and treatment related prognostic factors.

Methods

Patients with TBI ≥ 60 years receiving NIC at our department between 2008 and 2014 were included. Demographics, co-morbidity, admission characteristics, and type of treatments were collected. Clinical outcome at around 6 months was assessed. Potential prognostic factors were included in univariate and multivariate regression analysis with favorable outcome as dependent variable.

Results

Two hundred twenty patients with mean age 70 years (median 69; range 60–87) were studied. Overall, favorable outcome was 46% (Extended Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOSE) 5–8), unfavorable outcome 27% (GOSE 2–4), and mortality 27% (GOSE 1). Significant independent negative prognostic variables were high age (p < 0.05), multiple injuries (p < 0.05), GCS M ≤ 3 on admission (p < 0.05), and mechanical ventilation (p < 0.001).

Conclusions

Overall, the elderly TBI patients > 60 years receiving modern NIC in this study had a fair chance of favorable outcome without large risks for severe deficits and vegetative state, also in patients over 75 years of age. High age, multiple injuries, GCS M ≤ 3 on admission, and mechanical ventilation proved to be independent negative prognostic factors. The results underline that a selected group of elderly with TBI should have access to NIC.

Decompressive craniectomy in traumatic brain injury: usage and clinical outcome in a single centre

BACKGROUND

Two randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of decompressive craniectomy (DC) in traumatic brain injury (TBI) have shown poor outcome, but there are considerations of how these protocols relate to real practice. The aims of this study were to evaluate usage and outcome of DC and thiopental in a single centre.

METHOD

The study included all TBI patients treated at the neurointensive care unit, Akademiska sjukhuset, Uppsala, Sweden, between 2008 and 2014. Of 609 patients aged 16 years or older, 35 treated with DC and 23 treated with thiopental only were studied in particular. Background variables, intracranial pressure (ICP) measures and global outcome were analysed.

RESULTS

Of 35 DC patients, 9 were treated stepwise with thiopental before DC, 9 were treated stepwise with no thiopental before DC and 17 were treated primarily with DC. Six patients received thiopental after DC. For 23 patients, no DC was needed after thiopental. Eighty-eight percent of our DC patients would have qualified for the DECRA study and 38% for the Rescue-ICP trial. Favourable outcome was 44% in patients treated with thiopental before DC, 56% in patients treated with DC without prior thiopental, 29% in patients treated primarily with DC and 52% in patients treated with thiopental with no DC.

CONCLUSIONS

The place for DC in TBI management must be evaluated better, and we believe it is important that future RCTs should have clearer and less permissive ICP criteria regarding when thiopental should be followed by DC and DC followed by thiopental.

[Polytrauma and concomitant traumatic brain injury : The role of the trauma surgeon]

BACKGROUND

Concomitant traumatic brain injury (TBI) increases mortality and reduces quality of life of polytrauma patients. These facts demand effective treatment strategies while the growing specialization of medicine is questioning the role of the trauma surgeon in the management of these patients.

OBJECTIVES

Which factors influence outcome of polytrauma with concomitant TBI? Who should be responsible for the management of these patients and what is the limit of management?

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A literature search using Medline via PubMed was performed with Medical Subject Headings and text word search.

RESULTS

The crucial factors for outcome are absence of hypotension, adherence to pre- and in-hospital standards like fast transportation to appropriate centers, priority-based diagnostic and therapeutic strategies and strict adherence to principles of damage control surgery. Patients with polytrauma and TBI are treated by different specialties around the world based on the trauma system, geographic circumstances and resources. Investigations of operative and conservative management by different medical specialties showed comparable outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

In an age of standardization and a high degree of specialization in the field of medicine, the trauma surgeon still seems to be able to ensure an optimal treatment of polytrauma and concomitant TBI by focusing on priority-based diagnostic and therapeutic strategies and adhering to principles of damage control surgery.

Promising clinical outcome of elderly with TBI after modern neurointensive care

BACKGROUND

The increasing number of elderly patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) leads to specific neurointensive care (NIC) challenges. Therefore, elderly subjects with TBI need to be further studied. In this study we evaluated the demographics, management and outcome of elderly TBI patients receiving modern NIC.

METHODS

Patients referred to our NIC unit between 2008 and 2010 were included. Patients were divided in two age groups, elderly (E) ≥65 years and younger (Y) 64-15 years. Parameters studied were the dominant finding on CT scans, neurological motor skills and consciousness, type of monitoring, neurosurgical procedures/treatments and Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended score at 6 months after injury.

RESULTS

Sixty-two E (22 %) and 222 Y (78 %) patients were included. Falls were more common in E (81 %) and vehicle accidents were more common in Y patients (37 %). Acute subdural hematoma was significantly more common in E (50 % of cases) compared to Y patients (18 %). Intracranial pressure was monitored in 44 % of E and 57 % of Y patients. Evacuation of significant mass lesions was performed more common in the E group. The NIC mortality was similar in both groups (4-6 %). Favorable outcome was observed in 72 % of Y and 51 % of E patients. At the time of follow-up 25 % of E and 7 % of Y patients had died.

CONCLUSIONS

The outcome of elderly patients with TBI was significantly worse than in younger patients, as expected. However, as much as 51 % of the elderly patients showed a favorable outcome after NIC. We believe that these results encourage modern NIC in elderly patients with TBI. We need to study how secondary brain injury mechanisms differ in the older patients and to identify specific outcome predictors for elderly patients with TBI.

Updated periodic evaluation of standardized neurointensive care shows that it is possible to maintain a high level of favorable outcome even with increasing mean age

BACKGROUND

Periodic evaluation of neurointensive care (NIC) is important. There is a risk that quality of daily care declines and there may also be unrecognized changes in patient characteristics and management. The aim of this work was to investigate the characteristics and outcome for traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients in the period 2008-2009 in comparison with 1996-1997 and to some extent also with earlier periods.

METHODS

TBI patients 16-79 years old admitted from 2008 to 2009 were selected for the study. Glasgow Coma Scale Motor score at admission (GCS M), radiology, surgery, and outcome (Glasgow Outcome Extended Scale) were collected from Uppsala Traumatic Brain Injury Register.

RESULTS

The study included 148 patients (mean age, 45 years). Patients >60 years old increased from 16 % 1996-1997 to 30 % 2008-2009 (p < 0.01). The proportion of GCS M 4-6 were similar, 92 vs. 93 % (NS). In 1996-1997 patients, 73 % had diffuse injury (Marshall classification) compared to 77 % for the 2008-2009 period (NS). More patients underwent surgery during 2008-2009 (43 %) compared to 1996-1997 (32 %, p < 0.05). Good recovery increased and mortality decreased substantially from 1980-1981 to 1987-1988 and to 1996-1997, but then the results were unchanged in the 2008-2009 period, with 73 % favorable outcome and 11 % mortality. Mortality increased in GCS M 6-4, from 2.8 % in 1996-1997 to 10 % in 2008-2009 (p < 0.05); most of the patients that died had aggravating factors, e.g., high age, malignancy.

CONCLUSIONS

A large-proportion favorable outcome was maintained despite that patients >60 years with poorer prognosis doubled, indicating that the quality of NIC has increased or at least is unchanged. More surgery may have contributed to maintaining the large proportion of favorable outcome. For future improvements, more knowledge about TBI management in the elderly is required.