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Significance of bisphosphonates on angiogenesis in vivo and their effect under geranyl-geraniol addition - could it alter the treatment of bisphosphonate-associated necrosis of the jaw? Oral Maxillofac Surg 2022:10.1007/s10006-022-01053-2. [PMID: 35397019 DOI: 10.1007/s10006-022-01053-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this study was to contribute to the understanding of the inhibitory effects of bisphosphonates on tissues, with a special focus on angiogenesis. Referring to bisphosphonate-associated osteonecrosis of the jaw (BP-ONJ), it should be shown that the local addition of the isoprenoid geranyl-geraniol (GGOH) prevents vascularization processes. METHODS A mouse model with n = 24 animals which received an injection of a collagen matrix was used. In 4 subgroups (n = 6), we examined the effect of zoledronate on the sprouting of capillary-like structures into the matrix, with and without the presence of geranyl-geraniol, as well as testing against control groups with PBS injections or collagen matrix containing PBS instead of GGOH. This was followed by a histological evaluation of the capillary-like structures. RESULTS Zoledronate inhibits the sprouting of blood vessels into a collagen matrix in vivo; in the presence of GGOH this effect is significantly weakened by a factor of 3.9 (p = 0.00068). CONCLUSION This work commits to the investigation of the pathophysiology of BP-ONJ and shows a possible causal therapeutic path via the topical application of GGOH.
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Pan J, Liu JY. Mechanism, prevention, and treatment for medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaws. HUA XI KOU QIANG YI XUE ZA ZHI = HUAXI KOUQIANG YIXUE ZAZHI = WEST CHINA JOURNAL OF STOMATOLOGY 2021; 39:245-254. [PMID: 34041871 DOI: 10.7518/hxkq.2021.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The morbidity rate of medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaws (MRONJ) increased rapidly in recent years. Thusfar, the mechanism of MRONJ has no consensus. The possible mechanisms may include bone remodeling inhibition theory, angiogenesis inhibition theory, oral microorganism infection theory, immunosuppression theory, cytotoxicity-targeted oral epithelial cells, microcrack formation of maxillary or mandibular bone, and single nucleotide polymorphism. However, the efficacy of prevention and treatment based on a single mechanism is not ideal. Routine oral examination before MRONJ-related drug treatment, treatment of related dental diseases, and regular oral follow-up during drug treatment are of great significance for the prevention of MRONJ. During the treatment of MRONJ, the stage of MRONJ must be determined accurately, treatment must be standardized in accordance with the guidelines, and personalized adjustments must be made considering the specific conditions of patients. This review aimed to combine the latest research and guidelines for MRONJ and the experiences on the treatment of MRONJ in the Maxillofacial Surgery Department of West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, and discuss the strategies to improve the clinical process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Dept. of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Ji-Yuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Dept. of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
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Key Enzymes for the Mevalonate Pathway in the Cardiovascular System. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2021; 77:142-152. [PMID: 33538531 DOI: 10.1097/fjc.0000000000000952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Isoprenylation is an important post-transcriptional modification of small GTPases required for their activation and function. Isoprenoids, including farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, are indispensable for isoprenylation by serving as donors of a prenyl moiety to small G proteins. In the human body, isoprenoids are mainly generated by the mevalonate pathway (also known as the cholesterol-synthesis pathway). The hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase catalyzes the first rate-limiting steps of the mevalonate pathway, and its inhibitor (statins) are widely used as lipid-lowering agents. In addition, the FPP synthase is also of critical importance for the regulation of the isoprenoids production, for which the inhibitor is mainly used in the treatment of osteoporosis. Synthetic FPP can be further used to generate geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate and cholesterol. Recent studies suggest a role for isoprenoids in the genesis and development of cardiovascular disorders, such as pathological cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, endothelial dysfunction, and fibrotic responses of smooth-muscle cells. Furthermore, statins and FPP synthase inhibitors have also been applied for the management of heart failure and other cardiovascular diseases rather than their clinical use for hyperlipidemia or bone diseases. In this review, we focus on the function of several critical enzymes, including hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase, FPP synthase, farnesyltransferase, and geranylgeranyltransferase in the mevalonate pathway which are involved in regulating the generation of isoprenoids and isoprenylation of small GTPases, and their pathophysiological role in the cardiovascular system. Moreover, we summarize recent research into applications of statins and the FPP synthase inhibitors to treat cardiovascular diseases, rather than for their traditional indications respectively.
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Pons-Fuster López E, Seoane Leston J, López Jornet P. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate reduces damage to osteoblast-like cells treated with Zoledronic acid. Arch Oral Biol 2018; 94:27-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2018.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Revised: 06/10/2018] [Accepted: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Zhang J, Park J, Lee JW, Kwon YD, Kim EC. Bisphosphonates hinder osteoblastic/osteoclastic differentiation in the maxillary sinus mucosa-derived stem cells. Clin Oral Investig 2018; 22:1933-1943. [PMID: 29188452 DOI: 10.1007/s00784-017-2291-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Although bisphosphonates (BPs) are known to be associated with osteonecrosis of the maxilla, the precise effects of BPs on bone metabolism in human maxillary sinus mucosal cells (HMSMCs) are not yet known. The purposes of this study were to examine the effects of the BPs zoledronate (ZOL) and alendronate (ALN) on osteoblastic and osteoclastic differentiation in HMSMCs and to investigate the signaling pathways involved. MATERIALS AND METHODS The effects of ZOL and ALN were assessed for osteoblast differentiation by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, alizarin red staining, and RT-PCR for genes encoding Runx2 and osterix. Receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL)-mediated osteoclast differentiation in bone marrow macrophages (BMMs) was also examined. RESULTS ZOL and ALN both suppressed osteoblastic differentiation, as evidenced by their effects on ALP activity, mineralization nodule formation, and the mRNA expression levels of osteoblastic transcript factors. The RANKL/osteoprotegerin ratio in HMSMCs was increased by ALN, whereas ZOL had the opposite effect. Conditioned medium obtained from ALN-treated HMSMCs stimulated osteoclast formation and upregulated NFATc1 expression, whereas conditioned medium from ZOL-treated cells did not. ALN was more cytotoxic and stimulated apoptosis more strongly than ZOL. BPs decreased the protein levels of the non-canonical Wnt signaling protein Wnt5a and calmodulin-dependent kinase II. Moreover, recombinant human Wnt5a reversed the effects of BPs on osteoblastic and osteoclastic differentiation. CONCLUSION This study is the first demonstration that BPs exert negative effects on osteoblastic and osteoclastic processes via the non-canonical Wnt pathway in HMSMSCs. CLINICAL RELEVANCE It suggests that patients taking BPs during the period of maxillary sinus lifting and amentation should be given special attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Zhang
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, School of Dentistry, Kyung Hee University, Kyungheedae-ro 26, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaesuh Park
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, School of Dentistry, Kyung Hee University, Kyungheedae-ro 26, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Woo Lee
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School of Dentistry, Kyung Hee University, Kyungheedae-ro 26, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, 02447, South Korea
| | - Yong-Dae Kwon
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School of Dentistry, Kyung Hee University, Kyungheedae-ro 26, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, 02447, South Korea.
| | - Eun-Cheol Kim
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, School of Dentistry, Kyung Hee University, Kyungheedae-ro 26, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea.
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Ho HJ, Shirakawa H, Giriwono PE, Ito A, Komai M. A novel function of geranylgeraniol in regulating testosterone production. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2018; 82:956-962. [PMID: 29303051 DOI: 10.1080/09168451.2017.1415129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Isoprenoids play widely differing roles in various physiological processes in animals and plants. Geranylgeraniol (GGOH) is an isoprenoid found in plants, and is an important metabolic derivative in the isoprenoid/cholesterol synthesis pathway. Earlier studies focused on GGOH's ability to improve the side effects of bisphosphonate therapy by regulating the mevalonate pathway. More recently, the mevalonate pathway-independent effects of GGOH have been described, including anti-inflammatory, anti-tumorigenic, and neuroprotective activities. It is noteworthy that GGOH regulates the steroidogenesis pathway in testis-derived I-10 tumor cells. Testosterone is a hormone produced via steroidogenesis in testicles and plays a role in fetal development and the male reproductive system. GGOH enhanced testosterone and progesterone (its precursor) levels in I-10 cells by activating adenylate cyclase via cAMP/PKA signaling, without altering phosphodiesterase activity. These findings highlight the potential benefits of GGOH as a therapeutic agent for low testosterone levels, such as late-onset hypogonadism in men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsin-Jung Ho
- a Laboratory of Nutrition, Graduate School of Agricultural Science , Tohoku University , Sendai , Japan
| | - Hitoshi Shirakawa
- a Laboratory of Nutrition, Graduate School of Agricultural Science , Tohoku University , Sendai , Japan.,b International Education and Research Center for Food Agricultural Immunology, Graduate School of Agricultural Science , Tohoku University , Sendai , Japan
| | - Puspo E Giriwono
- a Laboratory of Nutrition, Graduate School of Agricultural Science , Tohoku University , Sendai , Japan.,c Southeast Asian Food & Agriculture Science & Technology (SEAFAST) Center , Bogor Agricultural University , Bogor , Indonesia
| | - Asagi Ito
- a Laboratory of Nutrition, Graduate School of Agricultural Science , Tohoku University , Sendai , Japan
| | - Michio Komai
- a Laboratory of Nutrition, Graduate School of Agricultural Science , Tohoku University , Sendai , Japan
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Pabst AM, Krüger M, Blatt S, Ziebart T, Rahimi-Nedjat R, Goetze E, Walter C. Angiogenesis in the Development of Medication-Related Osteonecrosis of the Jaws: An Overview. Dent J (Basel) 2016; 5:dj5010002. [PMID: 29563407 PMCID: PMC5806993 DOI: 10.3390/dj5010002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2016] [Revised: 11/24/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaws (MR-ONJ) is one of the most relevant side effects of bisphosphonate therapy; it is clinically defined as a non-healing wound in combination with an avascular and necrotic jaw within ongoing bisphosphonate therapy or after completed bisphosphonate therapy. Different theories concerning the development of MR-ONJ have been reported, while the exact pathophysiology is still unknown. Recent studies have increasingly focused on angiogenesis and revascularization concerning MR-ONJ pathophysiology, which seems to be a relevant factor in the development of MR-ONJ and a possible and promising point of action for MR-ONJ prevention and therapy. Therefore, and with respect to the different aspects and specific forms of angiogenesis, the enclosed review summarizes the possible role of angiogenesis and revascularization in the pathophysiology of MR-ONJ. Special focus is given to the strong negative influence of bisphosphonates on progenitor and mature endothelial cells in vitro as well as on microvessel sprouting in vitro and in vivo, which might result in overall reduced wound healing of oral soft and hard tissues, and therefore in an exposed and avascular jaw from a clinical viewpoint. Further, it will be summarized whether and in what way the aspect of angiogenesis might be used for possible MR-ONJ prevention and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Max Pabst
- Department of Oral- and Maxillofacial Surgery, General Armed Forces Hospital, Rübenacherstr. 170, 56072 Koblenz, Germany.
- Department of Oral- and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center Mainz, Augustusplatz 2, 55131 Mainz, Germany.
| | - Maximilian Krüger
- Department of Oral- and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center Mainz, Augustusplatz 2, 55131 Mainz, Germany.
| | - Sebastian Blatt
- Department of Oral- and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center Mainz, Augustusplatz 2, 55131 Mainz, Germany.
| | - Thomas Ziebart
- Department of Oral- and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Clinic, Georg-Voigt-Straße 3, 35039 Marburg, Germany.
| | - Roman Rahimi-Nedjat
- Department of Oral- and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center Mainz, Augustusplatz 2, 55131 Mainz, Germany.
| | - Elisabeth Goetze
- Department of Oral- and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center Mainz, Augustusplatz 2, 55131 Mainz, Germany.
| | - Christian Walter
- Department of Oral- and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center Mainz, Augustusplatz 2, 55131 Mainz, Germany.
- Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Mediplus Clinic, Haifa-Allee 20, 55128 Mainz, Germany.
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A retrospective study of osteomyelitis and osteonecrosis of the jaws and its etiologic implication of bisphosphonate in Asians. Clin Oral Investig 2016; 21:1905-1911. [DOI: 10.1007/s00784-016-1973-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Accepted: 10/05/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Pabst AM, Krüger M, Sagheb K, Ziebart T, Jacobs C, Blatt S, Goetze E, Walter C. The influence of geranylgeraniol on microvessel sprouting after bisphosphonate substitution in an in vitro 3D-angiogenesis assay. Clin Oral Investig 2016; 21:771-778. [PMID: 27170294 DOI: 10.1007/s00784-016-1842-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 04/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Recent studies focused on angiogenesis in the pathophysiology of bisphosphonate-associated osteonecrosis of the jaws (BP-ONJ) and identified geranylgeraniol (GGOH) as a feasible option for BP-ONJ therapy. This study investigated the influence of GGOH on microvessel sprouting after BP-incubation in vitro. MATERIALS AND METHODS Ten experimental set-ups were randomly designed in an in vitro 3D-angiogenesis assay. Two groups included HUVEC cell spheroids with and without (±) GGOH substitution as controls and eight groups pairwise contained either clodronate or the nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates (N-BP) ibandronate, pamidronate, and zoledronate ± GGOH. The size of the cell spheroids including the outbranching sprouts (SpS) as well as the density (SpD) and length of the sprouts (SpL) were analyzed by a grid system after 0, 24, 48, and 72 h. RESULTS For controls and NN-BP clodronate, no significant differences at any tested parameter and any point of measurement could be detected within the experimental set-ups ± GGOH (p each ≥0.05). For N-BP ibandronate, the experimental set-ups +GGOH showed a significantly increased SpS, SpD, and SpL after 48 and 72 h (p each ≤0.002) compared to the experimental set-ups -GGOH. For N-BPs pamidronate and zoledronate, the experimental set-ups + GGOH demonstrated a significantly increased SpS, SpD, and SpL after 24, 48, and 72 h (p each ≤0.001) compared to the experimental set-ups -GGOH. CONCLUSIONS The strong negative influence of N-BPs on microvessel sprouting could be significantly reversed by GGOH. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Since supportive therapeutic options for BP-ONJ are lacking, GGOH might be a promising substitute for BP-ONJ prevention and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Pabst
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Federal Armed Forces Hospital, Rübenacherstr, 170, 56072, Koblenz, Germany. .,Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center, Augustusplatz 2, 55131, Mainz, Germany.
| | - M Krüger
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center, Augustusplatz 2, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | - K Sagheb
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center, Augustusplatz 2, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | - T Ziebart
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Clinic, Georg-Voigt-Straße 3, 35039, Marburg, Germany
| | - C Jacobs
- Department of Orthodontics, University Medical Center, Augustusplatz 2, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | - S Blatt
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center, Augustusplatz 2, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | - E Goetze
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center, Augustusplatz 2, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | - C Walter
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center, Augustusplatz 2, 55131, Mainz, Germany
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Significance of endothelial progenitor cells (EPC) for tumorigenesis of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC): possible marker of tumor progression and neovascularization? Clin Oral Investig 2016; 20:2293-2300. [PMID: 26993659 DOI: 10.1007/s00784-016-1785-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Angiogenesis and neovascularisation plays a crucial role for tumorigenesis and tumor progression in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). The aim of our study was to investigate the neovascularization capacity by endothelial progenitor cells (EPC) in tumor patient as a possible predictor for tumor progression and tumor stage. MATERIALS AND METHODS Therefore, we investigated the cell number and biologic activity by cell migration and colony-forming ability of EPC. Cells were isolated from the peripheral venous blood of 79 patients who suffer HNSCC in different stages of disease. Thirty-three healthy individuals served as the control group. RESULTS Significantly increased biological activities were reflected by expression of the migration rate (1027 ± 1510) in comparison to the control group (632 ± 269) and the clonal potency measured by colony-forming unit (CFU) (tumor patients (19.7 ± 12.3) vs. control group (10.84 ± 4.8)). To determine whether or not EPC number can be used as a valid prognostic marker for clinical outcome of tumor patients, we furthermore compared a "high EPC-number-subgroup" (HI) with a "low EPC-number-subgroup" (LO) in a Kaplan-Meier survival curve. The HI-subgroup shows herein clearly a worse outcome. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate a possible pathway for EPC to play a critical role in the vasculogenesis and consequently in the progression of HNSCC. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Our findings could serve as possible predictors for the neovascularisation potential in HNSCC tumor patients.
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Geranylgeraniol and Neurological Impairment: Involvement of Apoptosis and Mitochondrial Morphology. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:365. [PMID: 26978350 PMCID: PMC4813225 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17030365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2015] [Revised: 03/02/2016] [Accepted: 03/03/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Deregulation of the cholesterol pathway is an anomaly observed in human diseases, many of which have in common neurological involvement and unknown pathogenesis. In this study we have used Mevalonate Kinase Deficiency (MKD) as a disease-model in order to investigate the link between the deregulation of the mevalonate pathway and the consequent neurodegeneration. The blocking of the mevalonate pathway in a neuronal cell line (Daoy), using statins or mevalonate, induced an increase in the expression of the inflammasome gene (NLRP3) and programmed cell death related to mitochondrial dysfunction. The morphology of the mitochondria changed, clearly showing the damage induced by oxidative stress and the decreased membrane potential associated with the alterations of the mitochondrial function. The co-administration of geranylgeraniol (GGOH) reduced the inflammatory marker and the damage of the mitochondria, maintaining its shape and components. Our data allow us to speculate about the mechanism by which isoprenoids are able to rescue the inflammatory marker in neuronal cells, independently from the block of the mevalonate pathway, and about the fact that cell death is mitochondria-related.
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES Bisphosphonates-related osteonecrosis of the jaw (BRONJ) is a common problem in patients undergoing long-term administration of highly potent nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates (N-BPs). This pathology occurs via bone and soft tissue mechanism. Zoledronic acid (ZA) is the most potent intravenous N-BP used to prevent bone loss in patients with bone dysfunction. The objective of this in vitro study was to evaluate the role of different ZA concentrations on the cells from human oral cavity, as well as the potential of plasma rich in growth factors (PRGF) to overcome the negative effects of this BP. MATERIAL AND METHODS Primary human gingival fibroblasts and primary human alveolar osteoblasts were used. Cell proliferation was evaluated by means of a fluorescence-based method. A colorimetric assay to detect DNA fragmentation undergoing apoptosis was used to determine cell death, and the expression of both NF-κB and pNF-κB were quantified by Western blot analysis. RESULTS ZA had a cytotoxic effect on both human gingival fibroblasts and human alveolar osteoblasts. This BP inhibits cell proliferation, stimulates apoptosis, and induces inflammation. However, the addition of PRGF suppresses all these negative effects of the ZA. CONCLUSIONS PRGF shows a cytoprotective role against the negative effects of ZA on primary oral cells. CLINICAL RELEVANCE At present, there is no definitive treatment for bisphosphonates-related osteonecrosis of the jaw (BRONJ), being mainly palliatives. Our results revealed that PRGF has a cytoprotective role in cells exposed to zoledronic acid, thus providing a reliable adjunctive therapy for the treatment of BRONJ pathology.
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