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Patti A. Challenges to Improve Extrusion-Based Additive Manufacturing Process of Thermoplastics toward Sustainable Development. Macromol Rapid Commun 2024:e2400249. [PMID: 38818529 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202400249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2024] [Revised: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
This review aims to present the different approaches to lessen the environmental impact of the extrusion-based additive manufacturing (MEX) process of thermoplastic-based resins and protect the ecosystem. The benefits and drawbacks of each alternative, including the use of biomaterials or recycled materials as feedstock, energy efficiency, and polluting emissions reduction, have been examined. First, the technological option of using a pellet-fed printer was compared to a filament-fed printer. Then, common biopolymers utilized in MEX applications are discussed, along with methods for improving the mechanical properties of associated printed products. The introduction of natural fillers in thermoplastic resins and the use of biocomposite filaments have been proposed to improve the specific performance of printed items, highlighting the numerous challenges related to their extrusion. Various polymers and fillers derived from recycling are presented as feeding raw materials for printers to reduce waste accumulation, showing the inferior qualities of the resulting goods when compared to printed products made from virgin materials. Finally, the energy consumption and emissions released into the atmosphere during the printing process are discussed, with the potential for both aspects to be controlled through material selection and operating conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Patti
- Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture (DICAr), University of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, Catania, CT, 95125, Italy
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2
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Subramani R, Vijayakumar P, Rusho MA, Kumar A, Shankar KV, Thirugnanasambandam AK. Selection and Optimization of Carbon-Reinforced Polyether Ether Ketone Process Parameters in 3D Printing-A Rotating Component Application. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1443. [PMID: 38794636 PMCID: PMC11125095 DOI: 10.3390/polym16101443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The selection of process parameters is crucial in 3D printing for product manufacturing. These parameters govern the operation of production machinery and influence the mechanical properties, production time, and other aspects of the final product. The optimal process parameter settings vary depending on the product and printing application. This study identifies the most suitable cluster of process parameters for producing rotating components, specifically impellers, using carbon-reinforced Polyether Ether Ketone (CF-PEEK) thermoplastic filament. A mathematical programming technique using a rating method was employed to select the appropriate process parameters. The research concludes that an infill density of 70%, a layer height of 0.15 mm, a printing speed of 60 mm/s, a platform temperature of 195 °C, an extruder temperature of 445 °C, and an extruder travel speed of 95 mm/s are optimal process parameters for manufacturing rotating components using carbon-reinforced PEEK material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raja Subramani
- Center for Sustainable Materials and Surface Metamorphosis, Chennai Institute of Technology, Chennai 600069, India; (R.S.); (A.K.T.)
| | | | - Maher Ali Rusho
- Lockheed Martin Engineering Management, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80308, USA;
| | - Anil Kumar
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kamala Nehru Institute of Technology, Sultanpur 228118, India;
| | - Karthik Venkitaraman Shankar
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amirtapuri 690525, India;
- Centre for Flexible Electronics and Advanced Materials, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri 690525, India
| | - Arun Kumar Thirugnanasambandam
- Center for Sustainable Materials and Surface Metamorphosis, Chennai Institute of Technology, Chennai 600069, India; (R.S.); (A.K.T.)
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Maraveas C, Kyrtopoulos IV, Arvanitis KG. Evaluation of the Viability of 3D Printing in Recycling Polymers. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1104. [PMID: 38675022 PMCID: PMC11054724 DOI: 10.3390/polym16081104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2024] [Revised: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The increased use of plastics in industrial and agricultural applications has led to high levels of pollution worldwide and is a significant challenge. To address this plastic pollution, conventional methods such as landfills and incineration are used, leading to further challenges such as the generation of greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, increasing interest has been directed to identifying alternative methods to dispose of plastic waste from agriculture. The novelty of the current research arose from the lack of critical reviews on how 3-Dimensional (3D) printing was adopted for recycling plastics, its application in the production of agricultural plastics, and its specific benefits, disadvantages, and limitations in recycling plastics. The review paper offers novel insights regarding the application of 3D printing methods including Fused Particle Fabrication (FPF), Hot Melt Extrusion (HME), and Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) to make filaments from plastics. However, the methods were adopted in local recycling setups where only small quantities of the raw materials were considered. Data was collected using a systematic review involving 39 studies. Findings showed that the application of the 3D printing methods led to the generation of agricultural plastics such as Polylactic Acid (PLA), Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), and High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE), which were found to have properties comparable to those of virgin plastic, suggesting the viability of 3D printing in managing plastic pollution. However, limitations were also associated with the 3D printing methods; 3D-printed plastics deteriorated rapidly under Ultraviolet (UV) light and are non-biodegradable, posing further risks of plastic pollution. However, UV stabilization helps reduce plastic deterioration, thus increasing longevity and reducing disposal. Future directions emphasize identifying methods to reduce the deterioration of 3D-printed agricultural plastics and increasing their longevity in addition to UV stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chrysanthos Maraveas
- Department of Natural Resources Development and Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos Street, 11855 Athens, Greece; (I.V.K.); (K.G.A.)
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Tablit S, Krache R, Amroune S, Jawaid M, Hachaichi A, Ismail AS, Meraj A. Effect of chemical treatments of arundo donax L. fibre on mechanical and thermal properties of the PLA/PP blend composite filament for FDM 3D printing. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2024; 152:106438. [PMID: 38359736 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2024.106438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
Arundo donax L. is investigated in this study as a suitable reinforcing agent for PLA/PP waste blend 3D printing filament. To improve the compatibility of the fibre and polymer, the Arundo fibre was chemically modified using alkali and silane treatment. Untreated and treated fibres were extruded with Polymer blends before being 3D printed. Effect of chemical treatment on thermal, mechanical, and morphological properties of the composites was investigated. The tensile, Izod impact, and water absorption of the 3D printed specimens were also tested. The Alkali treated (ALK) and combination of alkali and silane treatment (SLN) composites displayed good results. Tensile strength and modulus of the materials increased, as well as their maintained stability in the Izod impact test, demonstrating that the incorporation of ArF did not result in a loss in performance. SEM examination supported these findings by confirming the creation of beneficial interfacial contacts between the matrix and fibre components, as demonstrated by the lack of void between the matrix and the fibre surface. Furthermore, the alkali treatment of the ArF resulted in a considerable reduction in water absorption inside the biocomposite, with a 64% reduction seen in ALK composite comparison to the untreated composite (Un). After the 43-day assessment period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarra Tablit
- Laboratory Multiphas Polymeric Materials (LMPMP), Faculty of Technology, University Ferhat Abbas Setif-1, Setif, Algeria
| | - Rachida Krache
- Laboratory Multiphas Polymeric Materials (LMPMP), Faculty of Technology, University Ferhat Abbas Setif-1, Setif, Algeria
| | - Salah Amroune
- Laboratory of Materials and Mechanics of Structures (LMMS), Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Technology, Mohamed BOUDIAF University, M'sila, Algeria
| | - Mohammad Jawaid
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, College of Engineering, United Arab Emirates University (UAEU), Al Ain, P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates.
| | - Amina Hachaichi
- Department of Material Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, University Mohamed El Bachir El Ibrahimi, El Anasser, Bordj Bou Arreridj, 34030, Algeria
| | - Ahmad Safwan Ismail
- Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Malaysia
| | - Aatikah Meraj
- Laboratory of Biopolymers and Derivates, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Malaysia
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Acierno D, Patti A. Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) of Thermoplastic-Based Filaments: Process and Rheological Properties-An Overview. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:7664. [PMID: 38138805 PMCID: PMC10744784 DOI: 10.3390/ma16247664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
The fused deposition modeling (FDM) process, an extrusion-based 3D printing technology, enables the manufacture of complex geometrical elements. This technology employs diverse materials, including thermoplastic polymers and composites as well as recycled resins to encourage sustainable growth. FDM is used in a variety of industrial fields, including automotive, biomedical, and textiles, as a rapid prototyping method to reduce costs and shorten production time, or to develop items with detailed designs and high precision. The main phases of this technology include the feeding of solid filament into a molten chamber, capillary flow of a non-Newtonian fluid through a nozzle, layer deposition on the support base, and layer-to-layer adhesion. The viscoelastic properties of processed materials are essential in each of the FDM steps: (i) predicting the printability of the melted material during FDM extrusion and ensuring a continuous flow across the nozzle; (ii) controlling the deposition process of the molten filament on the print bed and avoiding fast material leakage and loss of precision in the molded part; and (iii) ensuring layer adhesion in the subsequent consolidation phase. Regarding this framework, this work aimed to collect knowledge on FDM extrusion and on different types of rheological properties in order to forecast the performance of thermoplastics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domenico Acierno
- Regional Center of Competence New Technologies for Productive Activities Scarl, Via Nuova Agnano 11, 80125 Naples, Italy;
| | - Antonella Patti
- Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture (DICAr), University of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
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Sola A, Trinchi A. Recycling as a Key Enabler for Sustainable Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Composites: A Critical Perspective on Fused Filament Fabrication. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:4219. [PMID: 37959900 PMCID: PMC10649055 DOI: 10.3390/polym15214219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM, aka 3D printing) is generally acknowledged as a "green" technology. However, its wider uptake in industry largely relies on the development of composite feedstock for imparting superior mechanical properties and bespoke functionality. Composite materials are especially needed in polymer AM, given the otherwise poor performance of most polymer parts in load-bearing applications. As a drawback, the shift from mono-material to composite feedstock may worsen the environmental footprint of polymer AM. This perspective aims to discuss this chasm between the advantage of embedding advanced functionality, and the disadvantage of causing harm to the environment. Fused filament fabrication (FFF, aka fused deposition modelling, FDM) is analysed here as a case study on account of its unparalleled popularity. FFF, which belongs to the material extrusion (MEX) family, is presently the most widespread polymer AM technique for industrial, educational, and recreational applications. On the one hand, the FFF of composite materials has already transitioned "from lab to fab" and finally to community, with far-reaching implications for its sustainability. On the other hand, feedstock materials for FFF are thermoplastic-based, and hence highly amenable to recycling. The literature shows that recycled thermoplastic materials such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA), acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET, or its glycol-modified form PETG) can be used for printing by FFF, and FFF printed objects can be recycled when they are at the end of life. Reinforcements/fillers can also be obtained from recycled materials, which may help valorise waste materials and by-products from a wide range of industries (for example, paper, food, furniture) and from agriculture. Increasing attention is being paid to the recovery of carbon fibres (for example, from aviation), and to the reuse of glass fibre-reinforced polymers (for example, from end-of-life wind turbines). Although technical challenges and economical constraints remain, the adoption of recycling strategies appears to be essential for limiting the environmental impact of composite feedstock in FFF by reducing the depletion of natural resources, cutting down the volume of waste materials, and mitigating the dependency on petrochemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Sola
- Advanced Materials and Processing, Manufacturing Business Unit, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3169, Australia
| | - Adrian Trinchi
- Advanced Materials and Processing, Manufacturing Business Unit, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3169, Australia
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Ritter T, McNiffe E, Higgins T, Sam-Daliri O, Flanagan T, Walls M, Ghabezi P, Finnegan W, Mitchell S, Harrison NM. Design and Modification of a Material Extrusion 3D Printer to Manufacture Functional Gradient PEEK Components. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:3825. [PMID: 37765679 PMCID: PMC10538106 DOI: 10.3390/polym15183825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/27/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the creative use of polymers has been expanded as the range of achievable material properties and options for manufacturing and post-processing continually grows. The main goal of this research was to design and develop a fully-functioning material extrusion additive manufacturing device with the capability to produce functionally graded high-temperature thermoplastic PEEK (polyether ether ketone) materials through the manipulation of microstructure during manufacturing. Five different strategies to control the chamber temperature and crystallinity were investigated, and concepts of thermal control were introduced to govern the crystallisation and cooling mechanics during the extrusion process. The interaction of individually deposited beads of material during the printing process was investigated using scanning electron microscopy to observe and quantify the porosity levels and interlayer bonding strength, which affect the quality of the final part. Functional testing of the printed parts was carried out to identify crystallinity, boundary layer adhesion, and mechanical behaviour. Furnace cooling and annealing were found to be the most effective methods, resulting in the highest crystallinity of the part. Finally, a functionally graded material cylindrical part was printed successfully, incorporating both low and high crystalline regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Ritter
- School of Engineering, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland (W.F.); (S.M.); (N.M.H.)
- I-Form, the SFI Research Centre for Advanced Manufacturing, Ireland
| | - Eric McNiffe
- School of Engineering, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland (W.F.); (S.M.); (N.M.H.)
- I-Form, the SFI Research Centre for Advanced Manufacturing, Ireland
| | - Tom Higgins
- School of Engineering, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland (W.F.); (S.M.); (N.M.H.)
- I-Form, the SFI Research Centre for Advanced Manufacturing, Ireland
| | - Omid Sam-Daliri
- School of Engineering, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland (W.F.); (S.M.); (N.M.H.)
- I-Form, the SFI Research Centre for Advanced Manufacturing, Ireland
| | - Tomas Flanagan
- Éire Composites Teo, Údarás Industrial Estate, An Choill Rua, Inverin, Co., H91 Y923 Galway, Ireland
| | - Michael Walls
- CTL Tástáil Teo, Údarás Industrial Estate, An Choill Rua, Inverin, Co., H91 Y923 Galway, Ireland
| | - Pouyan Ghabezi
- School of Engineering, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland (W.F.); (S.M.); (N.M.H.)
- I-Form, the SFI Research Centre for Advanced Manufacturing, Ireland
- Construct Innovate & SFI MaREI Research Centre, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - William Finnegan
- School of Engineering, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland (W.F.); (S.M.); (N.M.H.)
- I-Form, the SFI Research Centre for Advanced Manufacturing, Ireland
- Construct Innovate & SFI MaREI Research Centre, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Sinéad Mitchell
- School of Engineering, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland (W.F.); (S.M.); (N.M.H.)
- Ryan Institute for Environmental, Marine and Energy Research, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Noel M. Harrison
- School of Engineering, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland (W.F.); (S.M.); (N.M.H.)
- I-Form, the SFI Research Centre for Advanced Manufacturing, Ireland
- Construct Innovate & SFI MaREI Research Centre, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
- Ryan Institute for Environmental, Marine and Energy Research, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
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Papatheodorou A, Gavalas I, Ntenekou D, Karatza A. The Influence of Thermoplastic Composite Recycling on the Additive Manufacturing Process and In-Use Phase as Candidate Materials for Wearable Devices Applications. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:3775. [PMID: 37765629 PMCID: PMC10535287 DOI: 10.3390/polym15183775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is a popular additive manufacturing (AM) method for creating thermoplastic parts with intricate geometrical designs. Pure thermoplastic materials utilized in FFF, whose polymeric matrix is reinforced with other materials, such as carbon fibers (CFs), introduce products with advanced mechanical properties. However, since not all of these materials are biodegradable, the need for recycling and reuse immediately emerges to address the significant problem of how to dispose of their waste. The proposed study evaluates the printability, surface morphology and in vitro toxicity of two thermoplastic-based composite materials commonly used in wearable device manufacturing to provide enhanced properties and functionalities, making them suitable for various applications in the field of wearable devices. Tritan Copolyester TX1501 with 7.3% chopped CFs (cCFs) and Polyamide 12 (PA12) with 8.6%cCFs and 7.5% iron Magnetic Nanoparticles (MNPs)-Fe4O3 were used in the discrete ascending cycles of recycling, focusing on the surface quality performance optimization of the printed parts. Through stereoscopy evaluation, under-extrusion, and over-extrusion defects, as well as non-uniform material flow, are assessed in order to first investigate the influence of various process parameters' application on the printing quality of each material and, second, to analyze the optimal value fluctuation of the printing parameters throughout the recycling cycles of the materials. The results indicate that after applying certain adjustments to the main printing parameter values, the examined recycled reinforced materials are still effectively 3D printed even after multiple cycles of recycling. A morphology examination using scanning electron microscope (SEM) revealed surface alterations, while a cytotoxicity assessment revealed the adverse effects of both materials in the form of cell viability and the release of proinflammatory cytokines in the cell culture medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Papatheodorou
- BioG3D P.C., 1 Lavriou Ave., Technological & Cultural Park of Lavrion, 19500 Lavrion, Greece
| | - Iakovos Gavalas
- BioG3D P.C., 1 Lavriou Ave., Technological & Cultural Park of Lavrion, 19500 Lavrion, Greece
| | - Despoina Ntenekou
- BioG3D P.C., 1 Lavriou Ave., Technological & Cultural Park of Lavrion, 19500 Lavrion, Greece
| | - Anna Karatza
- BioG3D P.C., 1 Lavriou Ave., Technological & Cultural Park of Lavrion, 19500 Lavrion, Greece
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Oleksy M, Dynarowicz K, Aebisher D. Rapid Prototyping Technologies: 3D Printing Applied in Medicine. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2169. [PMID: 37631383 PMCID: PMC10458921 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15082169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Three-dimensional printing technology has been used for more than three decades in many industries, including the automotive and aerospace industries. So far, the use of this technology in medicine has been limited only to 3D printing of anatomical models for educational and training purposes, which is due to the insufficient functional properties of the materials used in the process. Only recent advances in the development of innovative materials have resulted in the flourishing of the use of 3D printing in medicine and pharmacy. Currently, additive manufacturing technology is widely used in clinical fields. Rapid development can be observed in the design of implants and prostheses, the creation of biomedical models tailored to the needs of the patient and the bioprinting of tissues and living scaffolds for regenerative medicine. The purpose of this review is to characterize the most popular 3D printing techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Małgorzata Oleksy
- Students English Division Science Club, Medical College of the University of Rzeszów, University of Rzeszów, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland;
| | - Klaudia Dynarowicz
- Center for Innovative Research in Medical and Natural Sciences, Medical College of the University of Rzeszów, University of Rzeszów, 35-310 Rzeszów, Poland;
| | - David Aebisher
- Department of Photomedicine and Physical Chemistry, Medical College of the University of Rzeszów, University of Rzeszów, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland
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