Intergenerational Transfer of Early Maladaptive Schemas in Mother–Daughter Dyads, and the Role of Parenting

Early Maladaptive Schemas and Their Impact on Parenting: Do Dysfunctional Schemas Pass Generationally?-A Systematic Review

There are several factors that play a key role in the development of early maladaptive schemas, i.e., temperament, unmet core emotional needs, and adverse childhood events (e.g., traumatization and victimization, overindulgence, overprotection). Thus, the parental care that a child experiences has a substantial impact on the potential development of early maladaptive schemas. Negative parenting can range from unconscious neglect to overt abuse. Previous research supports the theoretical concept that there is a clear and close relationship between adverse childhood experiences and the development of early maladaptive schemas. Maternal mental health problems have been proven to be a factor that has strengthened the link between a mother's history of negative childhood experiences and subsequent negative parenting. Consistent with the theoretical background, early maladaptive schemas are associated with a wide variety of mental health problems. Clear links have been found for EMSs and personality disorders, depression, eating disorders, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder. In light of these theoretical and clinical connections, we decided to summarize the available literature on the multigenerational transmission of early maladaptive schemas, which is also an introduction to our research project.

Overprotective parenting experiences and early maladaptive schemas in adolescence and adulthood: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Young's schema model identifies overprotection as a type of childhood experience associated with early maladaptive schemas. This review evaluated the evidence base examining overprotective parenting as a predictor of schema endorsement in adolescence and adulthood. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines, and registered on PROSPERO (CRD42021258990). PsycINFO, CINAHL and PubMed databases were searched on 5 June 2021 for eligible studies reporting original data on unadjusted association(s) between overprotective parenting and schema endorsement in samples with a mean age of 12 years or older. Studies were excluded if they were not in English or peer reviewed or participants were exposed to an intervention. Meta-analyses using Meta-Essentials software examined the relationship between maternal and paternal overprotective parenting with Young's 18 schemas. An adapted version of the Appraisal tool for Cross-Sectional Studies (AXIS) was used to assess methodological quality. A total of 16 articles were included. Based on 36 meta-analyses (Pooled N = 1,496 to 3,218), several schemas demonstrated positive small correlations with maternal overprotective parenting (range: r = 0.15, 95% CI = 0.10, 0.19 [Entitlement] to r = 0.29, 95% CI = 0.13, 0.43 [Enmeshment]) and paternal overprotective parenting (range: r = 0.15, 95% CI = 0.10, 0.20 [Abandonment] to r = 0.24, 95% CI = 0.10, .36 [Enmeshment]). Considerable heterogeneity was detected, but subgroup analyses were not significant. Overall, recollections of overprotective parenting experiences were primarily associated with schemas relating to disconnection and rejection, and impaired autonomy and performance. However, the literature has thus far relied on retrospective measures of parenting, and longitudinal research is needed to establish causality.

Keeping the Connection Alive With Tender Care and Common Sense: A Phenomenological Study on Daughters' Experiences of Having a Mother in a Nursing Home

The relationship between mother and daughter is exceptional when it comes to closeness and its impact on their whole life. Thus, a mother's move to a nursing home is pivotal for both of them. The aim of this interpretative phenomenological study, using the Vancouver School of Doing Phenomenology, was to explore daughters' experience of having a mother in a nursing home, its impact on the maternal relationship, and the daughters' need for education and support. Data were collected by 21 semi-structured interviews with 12 women who had mothers living in a nursing home. Keeping the connection alive with tender care and common sense encapsulates the interrelation between the daughters' urge to hold on to the mother-daughter relationship and the rare consideration of education and support from health professionals. Responsibility and sense of duty paired with relief because the mother is in a safe place were accompanied by the daughters' need for confirmation that the mother is well taken care of.

The mediating role of maladaptive cognitive schemas regarding the relationship between parenting styles and chronic pain in adolescents: a structural equation modelling approach

BACKGROUND

Although there is a growing body of evidence linking parenting styles to health outcomes, little emphasis has been dedicated to how parenting styles affect chronic pain in adolescents. Given the high prevalence of chronic pain in adolescents and taking into consideration the complexity of chronic pain and the factors affecting it, further research is needed to better understand the processes through which parenting styles affect adolescents' pain. The purpose of the present study was to explore the mediating role of maladaptive schemas in the association between different parenting styles and chronic pain.

METHOD

1302 adolescents aged 12 to 21 in Shiraz, Iran, were randomly selected to participate in this study. To identify adolescents with chronic pain, screening questions based on the 11th revision of the International Classification of Diseases were used. Buri's Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ), and Young's Schema Questionnaire-Short Form (YSQ-SF) were used to assess the parenting styles and maladaptive cognitive schemas, respectively. The structural equation modeling approach was carried out to evaluate the direct, indirect, and total effects of different parenting styles on chronic pain.

RESULTS

The results in the SEM models revealed that disconnection/ rejection (β = - 0.043, 95%CI =  - 0.07 to  - 0.02), impaired autonomy/ performance (β =  - 0.01, 95%CI =  - 0.02 to -0.003), over-vigilance/inhibition (β =  - 0.007, 95%CI =  - 0.01 to  - 0.008), and impaired limits schemas (β =  - 0.004, 95%CI =  - 0.006 to  - 0.002) significantly mediated the protective effects of the authoritative parenting style on chronic pain. It was also found that the mediating effects of disconnection/ rejection (β = 0.01, 95%CI = 0.01 to 0.02), and over-vigilance/ inhibition (β = 0.002, 95%CI = 0.001 to 0.02) existed in the relationship between the authoritarian style and chronic pain. The permissive style may also affect chronic pain through disconnection/ rejection (β = 0.004, 95%CI = 0.001 to 0.01), other-directedness (β = 0.01, 95%CI = 0.005 to 0.015), and impaired limits schemas (β = 0.05, 95%CI = 0.04 to 0.06).

DISCUSSION

The findings of the present study showed that maladaptive cognitive schemas play a mediating role in the relationship between parenting styles and chronic pain in adolescents. It seems that the interventions that target the effective communication between the parents and the adolescents can be considered as an important part in the chronic pain management in adolescents.

Understanding intergenerational transmission of early maladaptive schemas from a memory perspective: Moderating role of overgeneral memory on adverse experiences

BACKGROUND

Previous studies demonstrated that early maladaptive schemas (EMSs) are transmitted from mothers to children through adverse childhood experiences, such as maltreatment and unfulfilled core needs. The traumatic memory literature demonstrated that people with a history of trauma recall their traumatic and/or other negative experiences as categories of events-a phenomenon called overgeneral autobiographical memory (OGM)-to avoid the accompanying intense negative feelings. In the long run, OGM originating from an affect-regulation process after childhood traumatic experiences can facilitate the development of EMSs in children.

OBJECTIVE

This study expands the previous literature by studying whether OGM facilitates the transmission of EMSs by strengthening maladaptive thinking patterns after traumatic experiences.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTINGS

A total of 120 mothers and late adolescents participated in this study. The mothers filled out the forms online through a link sent to their e-mail addresses, and the adolescents completed the forms online through a link posted on social media.

METHOD

Late adolescents completed the Autobiographical Memory Recall Task, Young Schema Questionnaire-Short Form-3 (YSQ-SF3), Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Mothers filled out the YSQ-SF3 and BDI.

RESULTS

The results confirmed that adverse childhood experiences significantly mediated the relationship between mothers' and children's disconnection and rejection schemas. Furthermore, this relationship was stronger, especially for children with a higher tendency of overgeneral retrieval of negative experience (β = 0.26 (0.10), 95% CI [0.09, 0.49]).

CONCLUSIONS

The present study provides evidence that OGM facilitates the transmission of early maladaptive schemas.

Associations between early maladaptive schema domains of parents and their adult children: The role of defence styles

Although existing research recognized the associations between early maladaptive schemas (EMSs) of parents and their adult children, the mechanisms that underpin these associations were not fully understood. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to explore the role of defence styles (DSs) on the associations between two EMS domains (Disconnection/Rejection and Impaired Autonomy) of parents and their adult children. Two hundred and fifteen families (i.e., mother, father, and their adult children) participated in the study. Both parents and their adult children were asked to complete Young Schema Questionnaire-Short Form (YSQ-SF) and Defence Style Questionnaire (DSQ) to assess their EMS domains and DSs. According to the results of the current study, there were significant associations between Disconnection/Rejection and Impaired Autonomy EMS domains of parents and their adult children, and these associations were mediated by only immature DS of parents and their adult children in a serial mediation model. These results contributed to our understanding of the associations between EMS domains of parents and their adult children through immature DSs. Moreover, our findings highlighted the importance of synthesizing the concepts of different theories to enhance our understanding of mental representations in families.

The Good Enough Parenting early intervention schema therapy based program: Participant experience

Background and objectives

Schema therapy (ST) has become a mainstream therapy for the treatment of psychopathology and has been validated through a series of large scale, international randomized control trials. Among other things, schema therapy emphasizes the meeting of core emotional needs in children by primary caregivers as these unmet needs continue to adversely affect their lives into adulthood. An early intervention parenting program has been developed to help parents meet these core emotional needs in order to prevent the development of psychopathology in the first place. The program, Good Enough Parenting, is equally focused on reducing problems and strengthening parenting practices, regardless of where the child is on the “disordered to well-being continuum”. This study aims to explore “patient experience” by users of this program. Best clinical research guidelines advocate that participants should be used as collaborators rather than pure recipients; this process should predate large scale trials.

Design

An exploratory qualitative study with 55 parent-participants of Good Enough Parenting was conducted.

Methods

One-to-one interviews were conducted with participants, using critical incident technique and guided by semi-structured interview schedule, to explore their experiences with the program. Transcripts were then analyzed using thematic analysis.

Results

Coding showed a high degree of inter-rater reliability (kappa value of 0.78). The themes that emerged were Cultivating Awareness of Parents’ Own Schemas, Cultivating Intentionality, Working through Developmental Issues, Responses to Challenges at Home, Performing Multiple Roles, and the Learning Process. Participants overwhelmingly reported satisfaction within these key themes.

Conclusions

The results support the development of the program and the choice of “participant reported outcome measures” for use in subsequent randomized controlled trials.

Adverse childhood experiences and early maladaptive schemas in adulthood: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Schema Therapy is based on the theory that trauma and neglect in childhood lead to early maladaptive schemas and psychopathology in adulthood. The aim of this review was to evaluate support for this theory by synthesizing the literature on childhood adversity and schemas.

METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis were completed in compliance with PRISMA. PsycInfo, CINAHL and PubMed were searched to identify eligible studies that reported unadjusted association(s) between adverse childhood events and schema scores when participants were 18 years or older. Meta-analyses were conducted to estimate the pooled effect size of associations between schemas and experiences of childhood adversity.

RESULTS

A total of 33 studies met inclusion criteria and provided sufficient data for meta-analyses on childhood experiences relating to toxic frustration of needs (emotional neglect and physical neglect) and trauma and victimization (emotional abuse, physical abuse and sexual abuse). Of the 124 meta-analyses, 65 indicated that schemas show small to large correlations with emotional neglect (range: r = .16 [Failure] to r = .51 [Emotional Deprivation]); small to moderate correlations with emotional abuse (range: r = .20 [Vulnerability to Harm] to r = .44 [Emotional Deprivation]); and small correlations with physical neglect, physical abuse and sexual abuse (range: r = .16 [Vulnerability to Harm] to .26 [Emotional Deprivation and Social Isolation]).

CONCLUSIONS

Of the 33 included studies, only one used a longitudinal design. However, based on the correlational studies available, early maladaptive schemas in adulthood are associated with a history of childhood abuse and neglect.