1
|
Hulthén K, Vinterstare J, Nilsson PA, Brönmark C. Finotypic plasticity: Predator-induced plasticity in fin size, darkness and display behaviour in a teleost fish. J Anim Ecol 2024; 93:1135-1146. [PMID: 38898692 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.14130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Fish fins are remarkable devices of propulsion. Fin morphology is intimately linked to locomotor performance, and hence to behaviours that influence fitness, such as foraging and predator avoidance. This foreshadows a connection between fin morphology and variation in predation risk. Yet, whether prey can adjust fin morphology according to changes in perceived risk within their lifetime (a.k.a. predator-induced plasticity) remains elusive. Here, we quantify the structural size of five focal fins in crucian carp (Carassius carassius) following controlled manipulations to perceived predation risk (presence/absence of pike Esox lucius). We also assess if crucian carp respond to increased predation risk by shifts in dorsal fin colouration, and test for differences in how fish actively use their dorsal fins by quantifying the area of the fin displayed in behavioural trials. We find that crucian carp show phenotypic plasticity with regards to fin size as predator-exposed fish consistently have larger fins. Individuals exposed to perceived predation risk also increased dorsal fin darkness and actively displayed a larger area of the fin to potential predators. Our results thus provide compelling evidence for predator-induced fin enlargement, which should result in enhanced escape swimming performance. Moreover, fin-size plasticity may evolve synergistically with fin colouration and display behaviour, and we suggest that the adaptive value of this synergy is to enhance the silhouette of deep-bodied and hard-to-capture prey to deter gape-limited predators prior to attack. Together, our results provide new perspectives on the role of predation risk in development and evolution of fins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kaj Hulthén
- Aquatic Ecology Unit, Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Jerker Vinterstare
- Aquatic Ecology Unit, Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - P Anders Nilsson
- Aquatic Ecology Unit, Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Christer Brönmark
- Aquatic Ecology Unit, Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Wertman DL, Reimchen TE. Adaptive divergence of lateral plate ultrastructure in threespine stickleback. CAN J ZOOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2021-0234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The lateral plates of threespine stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus Linnaeus, 1758, are well-studied for their adaptive morphological responses to predators, yet it is unknown whether habitat influences plate ultrastructure. We investigate using scanning electron microscopy the lateral plate ultrastructure (tubercles and ridges) of stickleback (<i>N</i> = 61 adult fish) from nine Haida Gwaii (coastal British Columbia) wild-type populations, two experimental transplants, and two lab-reared cohorts reared from source populations. Tubercle density, but not ridge density, differed significantly across habitat types and populations. Among wild-type fish, tubercle densities were greatest in dystrophic habitats containing predatory fish, and lowest in weakly dystrophic systems featuring bird–invertebrate predation and marine populations with diverse predatory fish. No differences in tubercle density were detected between source and transplant populations, despite major habitat shifts. Lab-reared fish exhibited significantly lower tubercle densities than their source populations (< one generation). Tubercle density differences across habitat types may reflect adaptation to divergent predation regimes, with tooth-bearing predators selecting for denser tubercles that disperse point forces. Conservation of ridge density across populations suggests an essential function in dispersing forces applied to dorsal spines during predator manipulation. Lateral plate ultrastructure in threespine stickleback thus results from both heritable effects and developmental plasticity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Debra L. Wertman
- University of Victoria, 8205, Department of Biology, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Thomas E Reimchen
- University of Victoria, 8205, Department of Biology, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada,
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ramesh A, Domingues MM, Stamhuis EJ, Groothuis TGG, Weissing FJ, Nicolaus M. Does genetic differentiation underlie behavioral divergence in response to migration barriers in sticklebacks? A common garden experiment. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-021-03097-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Water management measures in the 1970s in the Netherlands have produced a large number of “resident” populations of three-spined sticklebacks that are no longer able to migrate to the sea. This may be viewed as a replicated field experiment, allowing us to study how the resident populations are coping with human-induced barriers to migration. We have previously shown that residents are smaller, bolder, more exploratory, more active, and more aggressive and exhibited lower shoaling and lower migratory tendencies compared to their ancestral “migrant” counterparts. However, it is not clear if these differences in wild-caught residents and migrants reflect genetic differentiation, rather than different developmental conditions. To investigate this, we raised offspring of four crosses (migrant ♂ × migrant ♀, resident ♂ × resident ♀, migrant ♂ × resident ♀, resident ♂ × migrant ♀) under similar controlled conditions and tested for differences in morphology and behavior as adults. We found that lab-raised resident sticklebacks exhibited lower shoaling and migratory tendencies as compared to lab-raised migrants, retaining the differences in their wild-caught parents. This indicates genetic differentiation of these traits. For all other traits, the lab-raised sticklebacks of the various crosses did not differ significantly, suggesting that the earlier-found contrast between wild-caught fish reflects differences in their environment. Our study shows that barriers to migration can lead to rapid differentiation in behavioral tendencies over contemporary timescales (~ 50 generations) and that part of these differences reflects genetic differentiation.
Significance statement
Many organisms face changes to their habitats due to human activities. Much research is therefore dedicated to the question whether and how organisms are able to adapt to novel conditions. We address this question in three-spined sticklebacks, where water management measures cut off some populations, prohibiting their seasonal migration to the North Sea. In a previous study, we showed that wild-caught “resident” fish exhibited markedly different behavior than migrants. To disentangle whether these differences reflect genetic differentiation or differences in the conditions under which the wild-caught fish grew up, we conducted crosses, raising the F1 offspring under identical conditions. As their wild-caught parents, the F1 of resident × resident crosses exhibited lower migratory and shoaling tendencies than the F1 of migrant × migrant crosses, while the F1 of hybrid crosses were intermediate. This suggests that ~ 50 years of isolation are sufficient to induce behaviorally relevant genetic differentiation.
Collapse
|
4
|
Frommen JG, Thünken T, Santostefano F, Balzarini V, Hettyey A. Effects of chronic and acute predation risk on sexual ornamentation and mating preferences. Behav Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arab116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Phenotypic plasticity is widespread in animals. Still, how plastic responses to predator presence affect traits under sexual selection and influence mating preferences is not well understood. Here, we examined how simulated chronic predator presence during development and acute predator presence during mate choice affect the expression of male secondary sexual traits and female mating preference in the three-spined stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus. Males reared under chronic predator presence developed less intense red breeding coloration but showed higher courtship activity than males that grew up in a predator-free environment. Acute predator presence during mate choice trials did not influence male behavior or ornamentation. Predator presence experienced during development did not affect female mating preferences, whereas acute predator presence altered preferences for male courtship activity. Male body size and eye coloration influenced the intensity of female mating preferences, while the trait changing most in response to predator presence during development (red coloration) had no significant impact. The observed interplay between developmental plasticity in male ornamental traits and environment-dependent female mating preferences may lead to dynamic processes altering the strength and direction of sexual selection depending on both the chronic and acute risk of predation. These processes may contribute to the maintenance of within- and among-population variation in secondary sexual traits, and may, ultimately, facilitate speciation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joachim G Frommen
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Savoyenstr. 1a, 1160 Vienna, Austria
- Division of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Wohlenstr. 50a, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
- Conservation, Ecology, Evolution and Behaviour Research Group, Ecology and Environment Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Timo Thünken
- Division of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Wohlenstr. 50a, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
| | - Francesca Santostefano
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Savoyenstr. 1a, 1160 Vienna, Austria
- Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, C.P. 8888, Succ. Centre-ville Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Valentina Balzarini
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Savoyenstr. 1a, 1160 Vienna, Austria
- Division of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Wohlenstr. 50a, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
| | - Attila Hettyey
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Savoyenstr. 1a, 1160 Vienna, Austria
- Lendület Evolutionary Ecology Research Group, Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Herman Ottó út 15, Budapest 1022, Hungary
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Freudiger A, Josi D, Thünken T, Herder F, Flury JM, Marques DA, Taborsky M, Frommen JG. Ecological variation drives morphological differentiation in a highly social vertebrate. Funct Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Annika Freudiger
- Division of Behavioural Ecology Institute of Ecology and Evolution University of Bern Hinterkappelen Switzerland
- Conservation Ecology Evolution and Behaviour Research Group Ecology and Environment Research Centre Department for Natural Sciences Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester UK
| | - Dario Josi
- Division of Behavioural Ecology Institute of Ecology and Evolution University of Bern Hinterkappelen Switzerland
- Conservation Ecology Evolution and Behaviour Research Group Ecology and Environment Research Centre Department for Natural Sciences Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester UK
| | - Timo Thünken
- Division of Behavioural Ecology Institute of Ecology and Evolution University of Bern Hinterkappelen Switzerland
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Ecology University of Bonn Bonn Germany
| | - Fabian Herder
- Sektion Ichthyologie Zoologisches Forschungsmuseum Alexander Koenig Bonn Germany
| | - Jana M. Flury
- Sektion Ichthyologie Zoologisches Forschungsmuseum Alexander Koenig Bonn Germany
| | - David A. Marques
- Division of Aquatic Ecology and Evolution Institute of Ecology and Evolution University of Bern Bern Switzerland
- Department of Fish Ecology and Evolution Centre for Ecology and Evolution, and Biochemistry Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG) Kastanienbaum Switzerland
| | - Michael Taborsky
- Division of Behavioural Ecology Institute of Ecology and Evolution University of Bern Hinterkappelen Switzerland
| | - Joachim G. Frommen
- Division of Behavioural Ecology Institute of Ecology and Evolution University of Bern Hinterkappelen Switzerland
- Conservation Ecology Evolution and Behaviour Research Group Ecology and Environment Research Centre Department for Natural Sciences Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester UK
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Hiermes M, Marder MB, Reher S, Rick IP, Vitt S, Bakker TCM. Influence of lighting environment on social preferences in sticklebacks from two different photic habitats. II. Shoaling and mate preferences of lab-bred fishes. Curr Zool 2021; 67:309-319. [PMID: 34616923 PMCID: PMC8489012 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoab033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Different environmental conditions may lead to diverse morphological, behavioral, and physiological adaptations of different populations of the same species. Lighting conditions, for example, vary vastly especially between aquatic habitats, and have been shown to elicit adaptations. The availability of short-wave ultraviolet (UV) light is especially fluctuating, as UV wavelengths are attenuated strongly depending on water properties. The island of North Uist, Scotland, comprises 2 differential habitat types, tea-stained and clear-water lakes, varying considerably in UV transmission. In previous studies, wild-caught 3-spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus populations (3 populations of each habitat type) were tested with respect to their shoaling and mate preferences for fish viewed under UV-present and UV-absent conditions. The results revealed a habitat-dependent preference of UV cues during shoal choice (tea-stained populations: preference for UV-absent condition in tea-stained water; clear-water populations: no preference in clear-water) but an overall preference for UV-present conditions during mate choice. To assess genetic influences on these behavioral patterns, similar experiments were conducted with lab-bred F1-generations of the same stickleback populations that were raised in a common environment (i.e. standardized clear-water conditions). Offspring of sticklebacks from tea-stained lakes tended to prefer shoals viewed under UV-absent conditions (only in tea-stained water), while sticklebacks from clear-water lakes showed a significant preference for the shoal viewed under UV-present conditions in clear-water but not in tea-stained water. Mate-preference experiments demonstrated that females from the tea-stained lakes significantly preferred and females from the clear-water lakes preferred by trend the male viewed under UV-present conditions in the clear-water treatment. The results for both shoaling- and mate-preference tests were largely similar for wild-caught and lab-bred sticklebacks, thus hinting at a genetic basis for the preference patterns.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meike Hiermes
- Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, Bonn 53121, Germany
| | - Michael B Marder
- Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, Bonn 53121, Germany
| | - Stephanie Reher
- Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, Bonn 53121, Germany
- Institute of Zoology, Functional Ecology, Universität Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King-Platz 3, Hamburg 20146, Germany
| | - Ingolf P Rick
- Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, Bonn 53121, Germany
- Institute of Zoology, University of Bonn, Meckenheimer Allee 169, Bonn 53115, Germany
| | - Simon Vitt
- Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, Bonn 53121, Germany
| | - Theo C M Bakker
- Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, Bonn 53121, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
de Meo I, Østbye K, Kahilainen KK, Hayden B, Fagertun CHH, Poléo ABS. Predator community and resource use jointly modulate the inducible defense response in body height of crucian carp. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:2072-2085. [PMID: 33717443 PMCID: PMC7920785 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Phenotypic plasticity can be expressed as changes in body shape in response to environmental variability. Crucian carp (Carassius carassius), a widespread cyprinid, displays remarkable plasticity in body morphology and increases body depth when exposed to cues from predators, suggesting the triggering of an antipredator defense mechanism. However, these morphological changes could also be related to resource use and foraging behavior, as an indirect effect of predator presence. In order to determine whether phenotypic plasticity in crucian carp is driven by a direct or indirect response to predation threat, we compared twelve fish communities inhabiting small lakes in southeast Norway grouped by four categories of predation regimes: no predator fish, or brown trout (Salmo trutta), perch (Perca fluviatilis), or pike (Esox lucius) as main piscivores. We predicted the body shape of crucian carp to be associated with the species composition of predator communities and that the presence of efficient piscivores would result in a deeper body shape. We use stable isotope analyses to test whether this variation in body shape was related to a shift in individual resource use-that is, littoral rather than pelagic resource use would favor the development of a specific body shape-or other environmental characteristics. The results showed that increasingly efficient predator communities induced progressively deeper body shape, larger body size, and lower population densities. Predator maximum gape size and individual trophic position were the best variables explaining crucian carp variation in body depth among predation categories, while littoral resource use did not have a clear effect. The gradient in predation pressure also corresponded to a shift in lake productivity. These results indicate that crucian carp have a fine-tuned morphological defense mechanism against predation risk, triggered by the combined effect of predator presence and resource availability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria de Meo
- Department of Forestry and Wildlife ManagementInland Norway University of Applied SciencesKoppangNorway
| | - Kjartan Østbye
- Department of Forestry and Wildlife ManagementInland Norway University of Applied SciencesKoppangNorway
| | | | - Brian Hayden
- Biology DepartmentCanadian Rivers InstituteUniversity of New BrunswickFrederictonNBCanada
| | - Christian H. H. Fagertun
- Department of Forestry and Wildlife ManagementInland Norway University of Applied SciencesKoppangNorway
| | - Antonio B. S. Poléo
- Department of Forestry and Wildlife ManagementInland Norway University of Applied SciencesKoppangNorway
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Taugbøl A, Quinn TP, Østbye K, Asbjørn Vøllestad L. Allometric relationships in morphological traits associated with foraging, swimming ability, and predator defense reveal adaptations toward brackish and freshwater environments in the threespine stickleback. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:13412-13426. [PMID: 33304548 PMCID: PMC7713926 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Freshwater colonization by threespine stickleback has led to divergence in morphology between ancestral marine and derived freshwater populations, making them ideal for studying natural selection on phenotypes. In an open brackish-freshwater system, we previously discovered two genetically distinct stickleback populations that also differ in geometric shape: one mainly found in the brackish water lagoon and one throughout the freshwater system. As shape and size are not perfectly correlated, the aim of this study was to identify the morphological trait(s) that separated the populations in geometric shape. We measured 23 phenotypes likely to be important for foraging, swimming capacity, and defense against predation. The lateral plate morphs in freshwater displayed few significant changes in trait sizes, but the low plated expressed feeding traits more associated with benthic habitats. When comparing the completely plated genetically assigned populations, the freshwater, the hybrids, the migrants and the lagoon fish, many of the linear traits had different slopes and intercepts in trait-size regressions, precluding our ability to directly compare all traits simultaneously, which most likely results from low variation in body length for the lagoon and migrant population. We found the lagoon stickleback population to be more specialized toward the littoral zone, displaying benthic traits such as large, deep bodies with smaller eyes compared to the freshwater completely plated morph. Further, the lagoon and migrant fish had an overall higher body coverage of lateral plates compared to freshwater fish, and the dorsal and pelvic spines were longer. Evolutionary constraints due to allometric scaling relationships could explain the observed, overall restricted, differences in morphology between the sticklebacks in this study, as most traits have diversified in common allometric trajectories. The observed differences in foraging and antipredation traits between the fish with a lagoon and freshwater genetic signature are likely a result of genetic or plastic adaptations toward brackish and freshwater environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Annette Taugbøl
- Department of BioscienceCentre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES)University of OsloBlindernNorway
- Human Dimension DepartmentNorwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA)LillehammerNorway
| | - Thomas P. Quinn
- School of Aquatic and Fishery SciencesUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWAUSA
| | - Kjartan Østbye
- Department of BioscienceCentre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES)University of OsloBlindernNorway
- Faculty of Applied Ecology, Agricultural Sciences and BiotechnologyDepartment of Forestry and Wildlife ManagementInland Norway University of Applied SciencesKoppangNorway
| | - Leif Asbjørn Vøllestad
- Department of BioscienceCentre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES)University of OsloBlindernNorway
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Anticipatory plastic response of the cellular immune system in the face of future injury: chronic high perceived predation risk induces lymphocytosis in a cichlid fish. Oecologia 2020; 194:597-607. [PMID: 33095316 PMCID: PMC7683483 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-020-04781-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Vertebrate cellular immunity displays substantial variation among taxa and environments. Hematological parameters such as white blood-cell counts have emerged as a valuable tool to understand this variation by assessing the immunological status of individuals. These tools have long revealed that vertebrate cellular immune systems are highly plastic and respond to injury and infection. However, cellular immune systems may also be able to anticipate a high risk of injury from environmental cues (e.g., predation-related cues) and respond plastically ahead of time. We studied white blood-cell (leukocyte) profiles in African cichlids Pelvicachromis taeniatus that were raised for 4 years under different levels of perceived predation risk. In a split-clutch design, we raised fish from hatching onwards under chronic exposure to either conspecific alarm cues (communicating high predation risk) or a distilled water control treatment. Differential blood analysis revealed that alarm cue-exposed fish had twice as many lymphocytes in peripheral blood as did controls, a condition called lymphocytosis. The presence of a higher number of lymphocytes makes the cellular immune response more potent, which accelerates the removal of invading foreign antigens from the bloodstream, and, therefore, may be putatively beneficial in the face of injury. This observed lymphocytosis after long-term exposure to conspecific alarm cues constitutes first evidence for an anticipatory and adaptive plastic response of the cellular immune system to future immunological challenges.
Collapse
|
10
|
Predation risk induces age- and sex-specific morphological plastic responses in the fathead minnow Pimephales promelas. Sci Rep 2019; 9:15378. [PMID: 31653876 PMCID: PMC6814781 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-51591-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Although comprehending the significance of phenotypic plasticity for evolution is of major interest in biology, the pre-requirement for that, the understanding of variance in plasticity, is still in its infancy. Most researchers assess plastic traits at single developmental stages and pool results between sexes. Here, we study variation among sexes and developmental stages in inducible morphological defences, a well-known instance of plasticity. We raised fathead minnows, Pimephales promelas, under different levels of background predation risk (conspecific alarm cues or distilled water) in a split-clutch design and studied morphology in both juveniles and adults. In accordance with the theory that plasticity varies across ontogeny and sexes, geometric morphometry analyses revealed significant shape differences between treatments that varied across developmental stages and sexes. Alarm cue-exposed juveniles and adult males developed deeper heads, deeper bodies, longer dorsal fin bases, shorter caudal peduncles and shorter caudal fins. Adult alarm cue-exposed males additionally developed a larger relative eye size. These responses represent putative adaptive plasticity as they are linked to reduced predation risk. Perhaps most surprisingly, we found no evidence for inducible morphological defences in females. Understanding whether similar variation occurs in other taxa and their environments is crucial for modelling evolution.
Collapse
|
11
|
Landeira-Dabarca A, Näslund J, Johnsson JI, Álvarez M. Cue recognition and behavioural responses in the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) under risk of fish predation. Acta Ethol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10211-019-00324-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
|
12
|
Lloren JI, Davidson SM, Twardek WM, Elvidge CK. Baseline activity and shoal type determine antipredator behaviors in bluegill from a southern Ontario lake. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-019-2669-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
13
|
Hulsey CD, Holzman R, Meyer A. Dissecting a potential spandrel of adaptive radiation: Body depth and pectoral fin ecomorphology coevolve in Lake Malawi cichlid fishes. Ecol Evol 2018; 8:11945-11953. [PMID: 30598789 PMCID: PMC6303698 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2018] [Revised: 09/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The evolution of body shape reflects both the ecological factors structuring organismal diversity as well as an organism's underlying anatomy. For instance, body depth in fishes is thought to determine their susceptibility to predators, attractiveness to mates, as well as swimming performance. However, the internal anatomy influencing diversification of body depth has not been extensively examined, and changes in body depth could arise as a by-product of functional changes in other anatomical structures. Using an improved phylogenetic hypothesis for a diverse set of Lake Malawi cichlid fishes, we tested the evolutionary association between body depth and the height of the pectoral girdle. To refine the functional importance of the observed substantial correlation, we also tested the coevolution of pectoral girdle height and pectoral fin area. The extensive coevolution of these traits suggests body depth in fishes like the Lake Malawi cichlids could diverge simply as a by-product of being tightly linked to ecomorphological divergence in other functional morphological structures like the pectoral fins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Roi Holzman
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life scienceTel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel and The Inter‐University Institute for Marine SciencesEilatIsrael
| | - Axel Meyer
- Department of BiologyUniversity of KonstanzKonstanzGermany
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
James WR, Styga JM, White S, Marson KM, Earley RL. Phenotypically plastic responses to predation threat in the mangrove rivulus fish (Kryptolebias marmoratus): behavior and morphology. Evol Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-018-9952-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
|
15
|
Stein LR, Bukhari SA, Bell AM. Personal and transgenerational cues are nonadditive at the phenotypic and molecular level. Nat Ecol Evol 2018; 2:1306-1311. [PMID: 29988159 PMCID: PMC6062471 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-018-0605-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2017] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Organisms can gain information about their environment from their
ancestors, their parents, or their own personal experience. “Cue
integration” models often start with the simplifying assumption that
information from different sources is additive. Here, we test key assumptions
and predictions of cue integration theory at both the phenotypic and molecular
level in threespined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus). We
show that regardless of whether cues about predation risk were provided by their
father or acquired through personal experience, sticklebacks produced the same
set of predator-adapted phenotypes. Moreover, there were nonadditive effects of
personal and paternal experience: animals that received cues from both sources
resembled animals that received cues from a single source. A similar pattern was
detected at the molecular level: there was a core set of genes that were
differentially expressed in the brains of offspring regardless of whether risk
was experienced by their father, themselves or both. These results provide
strong support for cue integration theory because they show that cues provided
by parents and personal experience are comparable at both the phenotypic and
molecular level, and draw attention to the importance of nonadditive responses
to multiple cues.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura R Stein
- Department of Animal Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA. .,Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
| | - Syed Abbas Bukhari
- Illinois Informatics Program, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA.,Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Alison M Bell
- Department of Animal Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA.,Illinois Informatics Program, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA.,Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA.,Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA.,Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Rystrom TL, Clement VF, Rick IP, Bakker TCM, Mehlis M. Shoal sex composition and predation risk influence sub-adult threespine stickleback shoaling decisions. Behav Processes 2018; 157:495-501. [PMID: 29933058 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2017] [Revised: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Group living reduces individual predation risk most effectively when group members are behaviorally and phenotypically similar. Group preferences are influenced by the individual, the members of the shoal, and the environmental conditions. While shoaling behavior has been studied extensively in the threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), it is unclear whether the sex of shoal mates influences the shoal preference of non-reproductive males and females and how this changes under increasing predation risk. Although non-reproductively active sticklebacks are sexually monochromatic in appearance, sex-related differences may result in sexual segregation when shoaling. Here we show that male and female sub-adult threespine sticklebacks had contrasting preferences for shoal mate sex, and that this preference was dependent on the level of predation risk during standardized experimental choice tests. In detail, test fish shoal with the opposite sex within low predation risk trials and with same-sex shoals within high predation risk trials. This difference might be linked to activity patterns; test males were more active than females. Our results demonstrate that differences between the sexes in a species with a sexually monochromatic non-reproductive stage can result in sex-related shoaling preferences. Most studies examining sexual segregation focus on sexually dimorphic species, but these results highlight the potentially widespread occurrence of sexual segregation beyond the sexually dimorphic reproductive stage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Taylor L Rystrom
- Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, D-53121, Bonn, Germany; Institute for Neuro- and Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Badestrasse 13, D-48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Vic F Clement
- Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, D-53121, Bonn, Germany; Zoologisches Forschungsmuseum Alexander Koenig, Leibniz Institute for Animal Biodiversity, Adenauerallee 160, D-53113, Bonn, Germany
| | - Ingolf P Rick
- Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, D-53121, Bonn, Germany
| | - Theo C M Bakker
- Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, D-53121, Bonn, Germany
| | - Marion Mehlis
- Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, D-53121, Bonn, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Hodge JR, Alim C, Bertrand NG, Lee W, Price SA, Tran B, Wainwright PC. Ecology shapes the evolutionary trade-off between predator avoidance and defence in coral reef butterflyfishes. Ecol Lett 2018; 21:1033-1042. [PMID: 29744987 DOI: 10.1111/ele.12969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2018] [Accepted: 03/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Antipredator defensive traits are thought to trade-off evolutionarily with traits that facilitate predator avoidance. However, complexity and scale have precluded tests of this prediction in many groups, including fishes. Using a macroevolutionary approach, we test this prediction in butterflyfishes, an iconic group of coral reef inhabitants with diverse social behaviours, foraging strategies and antipredator adaptations. We find that several antipredator traits have evolved adaptively, dependent primarily on foraging strategy. We identify a previously unrecognised axis of diversity in butterflyfishes where species with robust morphological defences have riskier foraging strategies and lack sociality, while species with reduced morphological defences feed in familiar territories, have adaptations for quick escapes and benefit from the vigilance provided by sociality. Furthermore, we find evidence for the constrained evolution of fin spines among species that graze solely on corals, highlighting the importance of corals, as both prey and structural refuge, in shaping fish morphology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer R Hodge
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Chidera Alim
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Nick G Bertrand
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Wesley Lee
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Samantha A Price
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.,Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Binh Tran
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Peter C Wainwright
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Meuthen D, Baldauf SA, Bakker TCM, Thünken T. Neglected Patterns of Variation in Phenotypic Plasticity: Age- and Sex-Specific Antipredator Plasticity in a Cichlid Fish. Am Nat 2018; 191:475-490. [DOI: 10.1086/696264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
|
19
|
Kjernsmo K, Merilaita S. Resemblance to the Enemy’s Eyes Underlies the Intimidating Effect of Eyespots. Am Nat 2017; 190:594-600. [DOI: 10.1086/693473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
|
20
|
Fischer S, Oberhummer E, Cunha-Saraiva F, Gerber N, Taborsky B. Smell or vision? The use of different sensory modalities in predator discrimination. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2017; 71:143. [PMID: 28989227 PMCID: PMC5607904 DOI: 10.1007/s00265-017-2371-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2016] [Revised: 08/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Abstract Theory predicts that animals should adjust their escape responses to the perceived predation risk. The information animals obtain about potential predation risk may differ qualitatively depending on the sensory modality by which a cue is perceived. For instance, olfactory cues may reveal better information about the presence or absence of threats, whereas visual information can reliably transmit the position and potential attack distance of a predator. While this suggests a differential use of information perceived through the two sensory channels, the relative importance of visual vs. olfactory cues when distinguishing between different predation threats is still poorly understood. Therefore, we exposed individuals of the cooperatively breeding cichlid Neolamprologus pulcher to a standardized threat stimulus combined with either predator or non-predator cues presented either visually or chemically. We predicted that flight responses towards a threat stimulus are more pronounced if cues of dangerous rather than harmless heterospecifics are presented and that N. pulcher, being an aquatic species, relies more on olfaction when discriminating between dangerous and harmless heterospecifics. N. pulcher responded faster to the threat stimulus, reached a refuge faster and entered a refuge more likely when predator cues were perceived. Unexpectedly, the sensory modality used to perceive the cues did not affect the escape response or the duration of the recovery phase. This suggests that N. pulcher are able to discriminate heterospecific cues with similar acuity when using vision or olfaction. We discuss that this ability may be advantageous in aquatic environments where the visibility conditions strongly vary over time. Significance statement The ability to rapidly discriminate between dangerous predators and harmless heterospecifics is crucial for the survival of prey animals. In seasonally fluctuating environment, sensory conditions may change over the year and may make the use of multiple sensory modalities for heterospecific discrimination highly beneficial. Here we compared the efficacy of visual and olfactory senses in the discrimination ability of the cooperatively breeding cichlid Neolamprologus pulcher. We presented individual fish with visual or olfactory cues of predators or harmless heterospecifics and recorded their flight response. When exposed to predator cues, individuals responded faster, reached a refuge faster and were more likely to enter the refuge. Unexpectedly, the olfactory and visual senses seemed to be equally efficient in this discrimination task, suggesting that seasonal variation of water conditions experienced by N. pulcher may necessitate the use of multiple sensory channels for the same task. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s00265-017-2371-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Fischer
- Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Wohlenstrasse 50a, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, L69 7ZB, Liverpool, UK
| | - Evelyne Oberhummer
- Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Wohlenstrasse 50a, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
| | - Filipa Cunha-Saraiva
- Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Wohlenstrasse 50a, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
- Konrad-Lorenz Institute of Ethology, Department for Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinarian Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Nina Gerber
- Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Wohlenstrasse 50a, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Barbara Taborsky
- Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Wohlenstrasse 50a, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Kelley JL, Davies PM, Collin SP, Grierson PF. Morphological plasticity in a native freshwater fish from semiarid Australia in response to variable water flows. Ecol Evol 2017; 7:6595-6605. [PMID: 28861260 PMCID: PMC5574804 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.3167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Revised: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 05/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In fishes, alterations to the natural flow regime are associated with divergence in body shape morphology compared with individuals from unaltered habitats. However, it is unclear whether this morphological divergence is attributable to evolutionary responses to modified flows, or is a result of phenotypic plasticity. Fishes inhabiting arid regions are ideal candidates for studying morphological plasticity as they are frequently exposed to extreme natural hydrological variability. We examined the effect of early exposure to flows on the development of body shape morphology in the western rainbowfish (Melanotaenia australis), a freshwater fish that is native to semiarid northwest Australia. Wild fish were collected from a region (the Hamersley Ranges) where fish in some habitats are subject to altered water flows due to mining activity. The offspring of wild-caught fish were reared in replicated fast-flow or slow-flow channels, and geometric morphometric analyses were used to evaluate variation in fish body shape following 3, 6, 9, and 12 months of exposure. Water flows influenced fish morphology after 6 and 9 months of flow exposure, with fish in fast-flow environments displaying a more robust body shape than those in slow-flow habitats. No effect of flow exposure was observed at 3 and 12 months. Fishes also showed significant morphological variation within flow treatments, perhaps due to subtle differences in water flow among the replicate channels. Our findings suggest that early exposure to water flows can induce shifts in body shape morphology in arid zone freshwater fishes. Morphological plasticity may act to buffer arid zone populations from the impacts of anthropogenic activities, but further studies are required to link body shape plasticity with behavioral performance in habitats with modified flows.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Kelley
- School of Biological Sciences (M092) The University of Western Australia Crawley WA Australia
| | - Peter M Davies
- Centre of Excellence in Natural Resource Management The University of Western Australia Albany WA Australia
| | - Shaun P Collin
- School of Biological Sciences (M092) The University of Western Australia Crawley WA Australia.,UWA Oceans Institute (M470) The University of Western Australia Crawley WA Australia
| | - Pauline F Grierson
- School of Biological Sciences (M092) The University of Western Australia Crawley WA Australia
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Polačik M, Janáč M. Costly defense in a fluctuating environment-sensitivity of annual Nothobranchius fishes to predator kairomones. Ecol Evol 2017; 7:4289-4298. [PMID: 28649341 PMCID: PMC5478047 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.3019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2016] [Revised: 02/22/2017] [Accepted: 04/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Antipredator strategies increase the chances of survival of prey species but are subject to trade-offs and always come at a cost, one specific category being the "missed opportunity." Some animals that can modulate the timing of life-cycle events can also desynchronize this timing with the occurrence of a predator. In an unpredictable environment, such a modification may result in a mismatch with prevailing conditions, consequently leading to reproductive failure. In eastern Africa, temporary pools existing only during the rainy season are inhabited by annual fish of the genus Nothobranchius. We examined (i) the capability of multiple Nothobranchius populations and species to cease hatching when exposed to chemical cues from native fish predators and adult conspecifics and (ii) the ability of N. furzeri to modulate their growth rate in the presence of a gape-limited fish predator. As the tested Nothobranchius spp. originate from regions with extreme environmental fluctuations where the cost of a missed opportunity can be serious, we predicted an inability to cease hatching as well as lack of growth acceleration as both the predator's gape limitation and the environment select for the same adaptation. Our results showed no biologically relevant influence of kairomone on hatching and no influence on growth rate. This suggests that, in an unpredictable environment, the costs of a missed opportunity are substantial enough to prevent the evolution of some antipredator defense strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Michal Janáč
- Institute of Vertebrate BiologyBrnoCzech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Engqvist L, Reinhold K. Adaptive trans‐generational phenotypic plasticity and the lack of an experimental control in reciprocal match/mismatch experiments. Methods Ecol Evol 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/2041-210x.12618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leif Engqvist
- Behavioural Ecology Institute of Ecology and Evolution University of Bern Wohlenstrasse 50A CH‐3032 Hinterkappelen Switzerland
- Evolutionary Biology Bielefeld University Morgenbreede 45, D‐33615 Bielefeld Germany
| | - Klaus Reinhold
- Evolutionary Biology Bielefeld University Morgenbreede 45, D‐33615 Bielefeld Germany
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Tanaka H, Frommen JG, Takahashi T, Kohda M. Predation risk promotes delayed dispersal in the cooperatively breeding cichlid Neolamprologus obscurus. Anim Behav 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
25
|
Perotti MG, Pueta M, Jara FG, Úbeda CA, Moreno Azocar DL. Lack of functional link in the tadpole morphology induced by predators. Curr Zool 2016; 62:227-235. [PMID: 29491910 PMCID: PMC5804239 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zow014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Most studies of predator-induced plasticity have focused on documenting how prey species respond to predators by modifying phenotypic traits and how traits correlate with fitness. We have previously shown that Pleurodema thaul tadpoles exposed to the dragonfly Rhionaeschna variegata responded strongly by showing morphological changes, less activity, and better survival than non-exposed tadpoles. Here, we tested whether there is a functional link between morphological plasticity and increased survival in the presence of predators. Tadpoles that experienced predation risk were smaller, less developed, and much less active than tadpoles without this experience. Burst speed did not correlate significantly with morphological changes and predator-induced deeper tails did not act as a lure to divert predator strikes away from the head. Although we have previously found that tadpoles with predator-induced morphology survive better under a direct predator threat, our results on the functional link between morphology and fitness are not conclusive. Our results suggest that in P. thaul tadpoles (1) burst speed is not important to evade predators, (2) those exposed to predators reduce their activity, and (3) morphological changes do not divert predator attacks away from areas that compromise tadpole survivalEE. Our results show that morphological changes in P. thaul tadpoles do not explain burst speed or lure attraction, although there was a clear reduction of activity, which itself reduces predation. We propose that changes in tadpole activity could be further analyzed from another perspective, with morphological change as an indirect product of behavior mediated by physiological mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María Gabriela Perotti
- Laboratorio de Fotobiología, INIBIOMA, CONICET-Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Quintral 1250, Bariloche, Rio Negro, Argentina
| | - Mariana Pueta
- Laboratorio de Fotobiología, INIBIOMA, CONICET-Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Quintral 1250, Bariloche, Rio Negro, Argentina.,Departamento de Biología General. Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Quintral 1250, Bariloche, Rio Negro, Argentina, and
| | - Fabián Gastón Jara
- Laboratorio de Fotobiología, INIBIOMA, CONICET-Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Quintral 1250, Bariloche, Rio Negro, Argentina
| | - Carmen Adria Úbeda
- Departamento de Zoología, INIBIOMA, CONICET-Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Quintral 1250, 8400, Bariloche, Rio Negro, Argentina
| | - Debora Lina Moreno Azocar
- Laboratorio de Fotobiología, INIBIOMA, CONICET-Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Quintral 1250, Bariloche, Rio Negro, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Baliga VB, Mehta RS. Ontogenetic Allometry in Shape and Flexibility Underlies Life History Patterns of Labrid Cleaning Behavior. Integr Comp Biol 2016; 56:416-27. [PMID: 27252204 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Body shape plays a crucial role in the movement of organisms. In the aquatic environment, the shape of the body, fins, and the underlying axial skeleton reflect the ability of organisms to propel and maneuver through water. Ontogenetic changes in body shape and flexibility of the axial skeleton may coincide with shifts in ecology (e.g., changes in habitat or feeding mode). We use the evolution of cleaning behavior in the Labridae (wrasses and parrotfishes) as a case study. Cleaner fishes are species that remove and consume ectoparasites from other organisms. In many cases, cleaning involves a high degree of maneuverability, as cleaners on the hunt for parasites may continuously dart around the body of their clients. In labrids, at least 58 species are known to clean. Over two-thirds of these species, however, clean predominately as juveniles, exhibiting an ontogenetic shift away from cleaning as they enter adulthood. Using a phylogenetic comparative framework, we examined features of the axial skeleton, overall body shape, and pectoral fin shape in 31 species of labrids spread across four major clades to assess how scaling patterns in these systems are associated with the ontogeny of cleaning behavior. We find that across wrasses, the ontogeny of body shape shows evolutionary concordance with the degree of flexibility across the vertebral column. A key driver of this relationship is that species that shift away from cleaning over ontogeny show stronger positive allometry for body depth and vertebral moment of inertia than other taxa. Species that clean throughout their life histories show a more elongate body and vertebral column, and tend to maintain the combination of these characteristics over ontogeny. Cleaning behavior in labrid fishes is thus an excellent model with which to investigate morphological patterns as they relate to evolution, development, and ecology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vikram B Baliga
- *Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Long Marine Laboratory, University of California Santa Cruz, 100 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
| | - Rita S Mehta
- *Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Long Marine Laboratory, University of California Santa Cruz, 100 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Ab Ghani NI, Herczeg G, Merilä J. Effects of perceived predation risk and social environment on the development of three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) morphology. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nurul I. Ab Ghani
- Ecological Genetics Research Unit; Department of Biosciences; University of Helsinki; PO Box 65 FI-00014 Helsinki Finland
- Department of Biology; Faculty of Science; University of Putra Malaysia; 43400 UPM Serdang Selangor Darul Ehsan Malaysia
| | - Gábor Herczeg
- Ecological Genetics Research Unit; Department of Biosciences; University of Helsinki; PO Box 65 FI-00014 Helsinki Finland
- Behavioural Ecology Group; Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology; Eötvös Loránd University; Pázmány Péter sétány 1/c H-1117 Budapest Hungary
| | - Juha Merilä
- Ecological Genetics Research Unit; Department of Biosciences; University of Helsinki; PO Box 65 FI-00014 Helsinki Finland
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Price SA, Friedman ST, Wainwright PC. How predation shaped fish: the impact of fin spines on body form evolution across teleosts. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 282:20151428. [PMID: 26559954 PMCID: PMC4685802 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.1428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well known that predators can induce morphological changes in some fish: individuals exposed to predation cues increase body depth and the length of spines. We hypothesize that these structures may evolve synergistically, as together, these traits will further enlarge the body dimensions of the fish that gape-limited predators must overcome. We therefore expect that the orientation of the spines will predict which body dimension increases in the presence of predators. Using phylogenetic comparative methods, we tested this prediction on the macroevolutionary scale across 347 teleost families, which display considerable variation in fin spines, body depth and width. Consistent with our predictions, we demonstrate that fin spines on the vertical plane (dorsal and anal fins) are associated with a deeper-bodied optimum. Lineages with spines on the horizontal plane (pectoral fins) are associated with a wider-bodied optimum. Optimal body dimensions across lineages without spines paralleling the body dimension match the allometric expectation. Additionally, lineages with longer spines have deeper and wider body dimensions. This evolutionary relationship between fin spines and body dimensions across teleosts reveals functional synergy between these two traits and a potential macroevolutionary signature of predation on the evolutionary dynamics of body shape.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S A Price
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California Davis, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - S T Friedman
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California Davis, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - P C Wainwright
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California Davis, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Distinctive insular forms of threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) from western Mediterranean islands. CONSERV GENET 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s10592-015-0742-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
30
|
Hammill E, Fitzjohn RG, Srivastava DS. Conspecific density modulates the effect of predation on dispersal rates. Oecologia 2015; 178:1149-58. [PMID: 25820788 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-015-3303-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2014] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Dispersal decisions underlie the spatial dynamics of metacommunities. Prey individuals may disperse to reduce the risk of either predation or starvation, and both of these risks may depend on conspecific density. Surprisingly, there is little theory examining how dispersal rates should change in response to the combined effects of predation and changes in conspecific density. We develop such a model and show that, under certain conditions, predators may induce dispersal at low prey densities but not high prey densities. We then experimentally manipulate the density of the ciliate Paramecium aurelia and the perceived presence of its predator, the flatworm Stenostomum virginiamum, in a two-patch metacommunity to parameterise the model. Paramecium dispersed in response to Stenostomum at low densities, but they reduced their dispersal in response to predation risk at high predator densities. By applying our model to the empirical data, we show that this switch in dispersal strategy, linked to increases in prey density, occurred because predators increased the difficulty or risk of dispersal. Together, the model and experiment reveal that the effects of predators on dispersal are contingent on prey density. Previous studies have sometimes reported an increase in dispersal rate when predation risk is elevated, and other times a decrease in dispersal rate. Our demonstration of a switch point, with predation risk increasing dispersal at low prey densities but reducing dispersal above a threshold of prey density, may reconcile the diversity of prey dispersal behaviours reported in these previous investigations and observed in nature.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edd Hammill
- School of the Environment, University of Technology, Sydney, Harris and Broadway, Ultimo, Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia,
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Abstract
In a wide range of organisms, including humans, mothers can influence offspring via the care they provide. Comparatively little is known about the effects of fathering on offspring. Here, we test the hypothesis that fathers are capable of programming their offspring for the type of environment they are likely to encounter. Male threespine sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus, were either exposed to predation risk while fathering or not. Fathers altered their paternal behaviour when exposed to predation risk, and consequently produced adult offspring with phenotypes associated with strong predation pressure (smaller size, reduced body condition, reduced behavioural activity). Moreover, more attentive fathers produced offspring that showed stronger antipredator responses. These results are consistent with behaviourally mediated paternal programming: fathers can alter offspring phenotypes to match their future environment and influence offspring traits well into adulthood.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura R Stein
- School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A
| | - Alison M Bell
- School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Alós J, Palmer M, Linde-Medina M, Arlinghaus R. Consistent size-independent harvest selection on fish body shape in two recreationally exploited marine species. Ecol Evol 2014; 4:2154-64. [PMID: 25360257 PMCID: PMC4201430 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.1075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2013] [Revised: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 03/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Harvesting wild animals may exert size-independent selection pressures on a range of morphological, life history, and behavioral traits. Most work so far has focused on selection pressures on life history traits and body size as morphological trait. We studied here how recreational fishing selects for morphological traits related to body shape, which may correlate with underlying swimming behavior. Using landmark-based geometric morphometrics, we found consistent recreational fishing-induced selection pressures on body shape in two recreationally exploited marine fish species. We show that individuals with larger-sized mouths and more streamlined and elongated bodies were more vulnerable to passively operated hook-and-line fishing independent of the individual's body size or condition. While the greater vulnerability of individuals with larger mouth gapes can be explained by the direct physical interaction with hooks, selection against streamlined and elongated individuals could either involve a specific foraging mode or relate to underlying elevated swimming behavior. Harvesting using passive gear is common around the globe, and thus, size-independent selection on body shape is expected to be widespread potentially leaving behind individuals with smaller oral gapes and more compact bodies. This might have repercussions for food webs by altering foraging and predation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Josep Alós
- Instituto Mediterráneo de Estudios Avanzados, IMEDEA (CSIC-UIB) C/Miquel Marqués 21, 07190, Esporles, Illes Balears, Spain ; Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries Müggelseedamm 310, 12587, Berlin, Germany
| | - Miquel Palmer
- Instituto Mediterráneo de Estudios Avanzados, IMEDEA (CSIC-UIB) C/Miquel Marqués 21, 07190, Esporles, Illes Balears, Spain
| | - Marta Linde-Medina
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester M13 9PT Manchester, U.K
| | - Robert Arlinghaus
- Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries Müggelseedamm 310, 12587, Berlin, Germany ; Chair of Integrative Fisheries Management and Integrative Research Institute for the Transformation of Human-Environment Systems (IRI THESys), Faculty of Life Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin Invalidenstrasse 42, 10115, Berlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Thünken T, Eigster M, Frommen JG. Context-dependent group size preferences in large shoals of three-spined sticklebacks. Anim Behav 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
34
|
Predator cue studies reveal strong trait-mediated effects in communities despite variation in experimental designs. Anim Behav 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.09.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
35
|
Scharnweber K, Watanabe K, Syväranta J, Wanke T, Monaghan MT, Mehner T. Effects of predation pressure and resource use on morphological divergence in omnivorous prey fish. BMC Evol Biol 2013; 13:132. [PMID: 23802571 PMCID: PMC3702407 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-13-132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2013] [Accepted: 06/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Body shape is one of the most variable traits of organisms and responds to a broad array of local selective forces. In freshwater fish, divergent body shapes within single species have been repeatedly observed along the littoral-pelagic axes of lakes, where the structural complexity of near shore habitats provides a more diverse set of resources compared to the open-water zones. It remains poorly understood whether similar resource-driven polymorphism occurs among lakes that vary in structural complexity and predation pressure, and whether this variation is heritable. Here, we analyzed body shape in four populations of omnivorous roach (Rutilus rutilus) inhabiting shallow lakes. We tested the relationship between body shape, gradients of resources, predation pressure, and, in a subset of two lakes, diet composition. We used genome scans of 331 polymorphic AFLP markers to test whether there was a heritable component to the observed morphological diversification. Results Body shape differed among lakes and was significantly correlated to differences in predation pressure. Roach from the lake with highest predation pressure were most divergent from the average body shape of all populations, characterized by a more streamlined body and caudally inserted dorsal fins; features that facilitate predator escape. Surprisingly, diet composition was not associated with morphology. AFLP analysis revealed weak genetic differentiation among lakes and no isolation by distance (IBD). Outlier analysis detected three loci under positive selection with differing frequencies in the four populations. General linear models did not support an association of lake-specific genotypes with morphological variation. Conclusion Body shape was divergent among lakes, suggesting that processes previously reported from within single lakes may also be operating at the scale of whole lakes. We found no evidence for body shape being heritable, although sample size was small in these natural populations. Rather than habitat structure and diet, we conclude that predation had a stronger effect on the prevalence of local morphotypes. A variable morphotype facilitating the efficient uptake of a variety of spatially and temporarily scattered resources seems to be favored in these small aquatic systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Scharnweber
- Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Spence R, Wootton RJ, Barber I, Przybylski M, Smith C. Ecological causes of morphological evolution in the three-spined stickleback. Ecol Evol 2013; 3:1717-26. [PMID: 23789080 PMCID: PMC3686204 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2013] [Revised: 03/26/2013] [Accepted: 03/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The central assumption of evolutionary theory is that natural selection drives the adaptation of populations to local environmental conditions, resulting in the evolution of adaptive phenotypes. The three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) displays remarkable phenotypic variation, offering an unusually tractable model for understanding the ecological mechanisms underpinning adaptive evolutionary change. Using populations on North Uist, Scotland we investigated the role of predation pressure and calcium limitation on the adaptive evolution of stickleback morphology and behavior. Dissolved calcium was a significant predictor of plate and spine morph, while predator abundance was not. Stickleback latency to emerge from a refuge varied with morph, with populations with highly reduced plates and spines and high predation risk less bold. Our findings support strong directional selection in three-spined stickleback evolution, driven by multiple selective agents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rowena Spence
- School of Biology, University of St. AndrewsSt. Andrews, KY16 8LB, UK
| | - Robert J Wootton
- Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth UniversityAberystwyth, Ceredigion, SY23 3DA, UK
| | - Iain Barber
- Department of Biology, University of LeicesterLeicester, LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Mirosław Przybylski
- Department of Ecology and Vertebrate Zoology, University of ŁódźŁódź, Poland
| | - Carl Smith
- School of Biology, University of St. AndrewsSt. Andrews, KY16 8LB, UK
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Balog A, Schmitz OJ. Predation determines different selective pressure on pea aphid host races in a complex agricultural mosaic. PLoS One 2013; 8:e55900. [PMID: 23409081 PMCID: PMC3567016 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0055900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2012] [Accepted: 01/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Field assessments were conducted to examine the interplay between host plant and predation in complex agricultural mosaic on pea aphid clover and alfalfa races. In one experiment, we examined the relative fitness on clover race (CR) and alfalfa race (AR) pea aphids on broad bean, red clover and alfalfa alone. But because clover is typically grown in a more complex agricultural mosaic with alfalfa and broad bean, a second experiment was conducted to assess the fitness consequences under predation in a more complex agricultural field setting that also included potential apparent competition with AR pea aphids. In a third experiment we tested for the effect of differential host race density on the fitness of the other host race mediated by a predator effect. CR pea aphids always had fitness losses when on broad bean (had lower fitness on broad bean relative to red clover) and fitness benefits when on red clover (higher fitness on red clover relative to broad bean), whether or not in apparent competition with alfalfa race aphids on bean and alfalfa. AR suffered fitness loss on both alfalfa and bean in apparent competition with CR on clover. Therefore we can conclude that the predation rate between host races was highly asymmetrical. The complexity of the agricultural mosaic thus can influence prey selection by predators on different host plants. These may have evolutionary consequences through context dependent fitness benefits on particular host plants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adalbert Balog
- School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Fischer S, Frommen JG. Eutrophication alters social preferences in three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-012-1449-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
|
39
|
Lucek K, Sivasundar A, Seehausen O. Evidence of adaptive evolutionary divergence during biological invasion. PLoS One 2012; 7:e49377. [PMID: 23152900 PMCID: PMC3495884 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0049377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2012] [Accepted: 10/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Rapid phenotypic diversification during biological invasions can either arise by adaptation to alternative environments or by adaptive phenotypic plasticity. Where experimental evidence for adaptive plasticity is common, support for evolutionary diversification is rare. Here, we performed a controlled laboratory experiment using full-sib crosses between ecologically divergent threespine stickleback populations to test for a genetic basis of adaptation. Our populations are from two very different habitats, lake and stream, of a recently invaded range in Switzerland and differ in ecologically relevant morphological traits. We found that in a lake-like food treatment lake fish grow faster than stream fish, resembling the difference among wild type individuals. In contrast, in a stream-like food treatment individuals from both populations grow similarly. Our experimental data suggest that genetically determined diversification has occurred within less than 140 years after the arrival of stickleback in our studied region.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kay Lucek
- Aquatic Ecology and Evolution, Institute of Ecology & Evolution, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Välimäki K, Herczeg G, Merilä J. Morphological anti-predator defences in the nine-spined stickleback: constitutive, induced or both? Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01989.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kaisa Välimäki
- Ecological Genetics Research Unit; University Helsinki; PO Box 65; FI-00014; Helsinki; Finland
| | - Gábor Herczeg
- Ecological Genetics Research Unit; University Helsinki; PO Box 65; FI-00014; Helsinki; Finland
| | - Juha Merilä
- Ecological Genetics Research Unit; University Helsinki; PO Box 65; FI-00014; Helsinki; Finland
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Grünbaum T, Cloutier R, Vincent B. Dynamic skeletogenesis in fishes: Insight of exercise training on developmental plasticity. Dev Dyn 2012; 241:1507-24. [DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.23837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
|
42
|
Leaver SD, Reimchen TE. Abrupt changes in defence and trophic morphology of the giant threespine stickleback (Gasterosteussp.) following colonization of a vacant habitat. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01969.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen D. Leaver
- Department of Biology; University of Victoria; PO Box 3020 Victoria BC V8W 3N5 Canada
| | - Thomas E. Reimchen
- Department of Biology; University of Victoria; PO Box 3020 Victoria BC V8W 3N5 Canada
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Bourdeau PE, Johansson F. Predator-induced morphological defences as by-products of prey behaviour: a review and prospectus. OIKOS 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0706.2012.20235.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
|
44
|
McCAIRNS RJS, BERNATCHEZ L. Plasticity and heritability of morphological variation within and between parapatric stickleback demes. J Evol Biol 2012; 25:1097-112. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2012.02496.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
45
|
Välimäki K, Herczeg G. Ontogenetic and evolutionary effects of predation and competition on nine-spined stickleback (Pungitius pungitius) body size. J Anim Ecol 2012; 81:859-67. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2656.2012.01971.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
46
|
|