Involvement of CtBP2 in LPS-induced microglial activation

The dorsal hippocampal CA3 regulates spatial reference memory through the CtBP2/GluR2 pathway

The dorsal hippocampus plays a pivotal role in spatial memory. However, the role of subregion-specific molecular pathways in spatial cognition remains unclear. We observed that the transcriptional coregulator C-terminal binding protein 2 (CtBP2) presented CA3-specific enrichment in expression. RNAi interference of CtBP2 in the dorsal CA3 (dCA3) neurons, but not the ventral CA3 (vCA3), specifically impaired spatial reference memory and reduced the expression of GluR2, the calcium permeability determinant subunit of AMPA receptors. Application of an antagonist for GluR2-absent calcium permeable AMPA receptors rescued spatial memory deficits in dCA3 CtBP2 knockdown animals. Transcriptomic analysis suggest that CtBP2 may regulate GluR2 protein level through post-translational mechanisms, especially by the endocytosis pathway which regulates AMPA receptor sorting. Consistently, CtBP2 deficiency altered the mRNA expression of multiple endocytosis-regulatory genes, and CtBP2 knockdown in primary hippocampal neurons enhanced GluR2-containing AMPA receptor endocytosis. Together, our results provide evidence that the dCA3 regulates spatial reference memory by the CtBP2/GluR2 pathway through the modulation of calcium permeable AMPA receptors.

Knockdown of receptor interacting protein 140 (RIP140) alleviated lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation, apoptosis and permeability in pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells by regulating C-terminal binding protein 2 (CTBP2)

The main pathological feature of acute lung injury (ALI) is pulmonary edema caused by increased permeability of pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (PMVECs). LPS was has been confirmed to lead to cell damage and barrier dysfunction in PMVECs. Furthermore, receptor interacting protein 140 (RIP140) was discovered to be increased in LPS-induced human pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (HPMECs), but the mechanism of RIP140 on LPS-induced HPMECs has not been investigated. In this study, an acute lung injury model was constructed in LPS-induced HPMECs. After RIP140 was downregulated, inflammation, apoptosis and cell permeability levels were detected by RT-qPCR, TUNEL staining and FITC-Dextran, respectively. Western blotting was used to detect the protein levels of related factors. The binding of RIP140 and C-terminal binding protein 2 (CTBP2) was predicted by database and verified by Co-IP. Subsequently, CTBP2 overexpression was transfected into cells and the above experiments were performed again. The results showed that inflammation, apoptosis and permeability levels of LPS-induced HPMECs were remarkably increased compared to the untreated control group. However, these levels were suppressed after RIP140 was silenced compared to the LPS-induced HPMECs group. Notably, the Co-IP study demonstrated that RIP140 and CTBP2 interacted with each other. Moreover, CTBP2 overexpression reversed the inhibitory effects of RIP140 silencing on LPS-induced inflammation, apoptosis and permeability levels in HPMECs. Together, the study found that interference of RIP140 could alleviate LPS-induced inflammation, apoptosis and permeability in HPMECs by regulating CTBP2.

Transcription factors, transcriptional coregulators, and epigenetic modulation in the control of pulmonary vascular cell phenotype: therapeutic implications for pulmonary hypertension (2015 Grover Conference series)

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a complex and multifactorial disease involving genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors. Numerous stimuli and pathological conditions facilitate severe vascular remodeling in PH by activation of a complex cascade of signaling pathways involving vascular cell proliferation, differentiation, and inflammation. Multiple signaling cascades modulate the activity of certain sequence-specific DNA-binding transcription factors (TFs) and coregulators that are critical for the transcriptional regulation of gene expression that facilitates PH-associated vascular cell phenotypes, as demonstrated by several studies summarized in this review. Past studies have largely focused on the role of the genetic component in the development of PH, while the presence of epigenetic alterations such as microRNAs, DNA methylation, histone levels, and histone deacetylases in PH is now also receiving increasing attention. Epigenetic regulation of chromatin structure is also recognized to influence gene expression in development or disease states. Therefore, a complete understanding of the mechanisms involved in altered gene expression in diseased cells is vital for the design of novel therapeutic strategies. Recent technological advances in DNA sequencing will provide a comprehensive improvement in our understanding of mechanisms involved in the development of PH. This review summarizes current concepts in TF and epigenetic control of cell phenotype in pulmonary vascular disease and discusses the current issues and possibilities in employing potential epigenetic or TF-based therapies for achieving complete reversal of PH.

Metabolic Reprogramming Regulates the Proliferative and Inflammatory Phenotype of Adventitial Fibroblasts in Pulmonary Hypertension Through the Transcriptional Corepressor C-Terminal Binding Protein-1

BACKGROUND

Changes in metabolism have been suggested to contribute to the aberrant phenotype of vascular wall cells, including fibroblasts, in pulmonary hypertension (PH). Here, we test the hypothesis that metabolic reprogramming to aerobic glycolysis is a critical adaptation of fibroblasts in the hypertensive vessel wall that drives proliferative and proinflammatory activation through a mechanism involving increased activity of the NADH-sensitive transcriptional corepressor C-terminal binding protein 1 (CtBP1).

METHODS

RNA sequencing, quantitative polymerase chain reaction,13C-nuclear magnetic resonance, fluorescence-lifetime imaging, mass spectrometry-based metabolomics, and tracing experiments with U-13C-glucose were used to assess glycolytic reprogramming and to measure the NADH/NAD+ ratio in bovine and human adventitial fibroblasts and mouse lung tissues. Immunohistochemistry was used to assess CtBP1 expression in the whole-lung tissues. CtBP1 siRNA and the pharmacological inhibitor 4-methylthio-2-oxobutyric acid (MTOB) were used to abrogate CtBP1 activity in cells and hypoxic mice.

RESULTS

We found that adventitial fibroblasts from calves with severe hypoxia-induced PH and humans with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (PH-Fibs) displayed aerobic glycolysis when cultured under normoxia, accompanied by increased free NADH and NADH/NAD+ ratios. Expression of the NADH sensor CtBP1 was increased in vivo and in vitro in fibroblasts within the pulmonary adventitia of humans with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension and animals with PH and cultured PH-Fibs, respectively. Decreasing NADH pharmacologically with MTOB or genetically blocking CtBP1 with siRNA upregulated the cyclin-dependent genes (p15 and p21) and proapoptotic regulators (NOXA and PERP), attenuated proliferation, corrected the glycolytic reprogramming phenotype of PH-Fibs, and augmented transcription of the anti-inflammatory gene HMOX1. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis demonstrated that CtBP1 directly binds the HMOX1 promoter. Treatment of hypoxic mice with MTOB decreased glycolysis and expression of inflammatory genes, attenuated proliferation, and suppressed macrophage numbers and remodeling in the distal pulmonary vasculature.

CONCLUSIONS

CtBP1 is a critical factor linking changes in cell metabolism to cell phenotype in hypoxic and other forms of PH and a therapeutic target.

C-terminal binding proteins: central players in development and disease

C-terminal binding proteins (CtBPs) were initially identified as binding partners for the E1A-transforming proteins. Although the invertebrate genome encodes one CtBP protein, two CtBPs (CtBP1 and CtBP2) are encoded by the vertebrate genome and perform both unique and duplicative functions. CtBP1 and CtBP2 are closely related and act as transcriptional corepressors when activated by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide binding to their dehydrogenase domains. CtBPs exert transcriptional repression primarily via recruitment of a corepressor complex to DNA that consists of histone deacetylases (HDACs) and histone methyltransferases, although CtBPs can also repress transcription through HDAC-independent mechanisms. More recent studies have demonstrated a critical function for CtBPs in the transcriptional repression of pro-apoptotic genes such as Bax, Puma, Bik, and Noxa. Nonetheless, although recent efforts have characterized the essential involvement of CtBPs in promoting cellular survival, the dysregulation of CtBPs in both neurodegenerative disease and cancers remains to be fully elucidated.

Role of CtBP2 in the Apoptosis of Retinal Ganglion Cells

Glaucoma damages the optic nerve and is a leading cause of irreversible blindness, and its pathogenesis remains unclear. C-terminal-binding protein 2 (CtBP2) is a transcriptional repressor which plays an important role in central nervous system injury and repair. Using the glaucoma model of DBA/2J mouse whose retina ganglion cells (RGCs) were degenerating with the process of glaucoma, we demonstrated for the first time the special relationship between CtBP2 protein and RGCs. Our research indicated that the expression of CtBP2 was gradually decreased with aging by the means of Western blotting. The CtBP2 immunoreactivity-positive cells were present in the various retinal layers, and CtBP2-positive cells were dramatically decreased in ganglion cell layer. Our research also found ectopic expression of CtBP2 can protect the apoptosis of primary mouse RGC cells induced by L-glutamate. These results suggest that CtBP2 may have a potential therapeutic effect in protecting RGC.

Genome-wide profiling of in vivo LPS-responsive genes in splenic myeloid cells

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the major causative agent of bacterial sepsis, has been used by many laboratories in genome-wide expression profiling of the LPS response. However, these studies have predominantly used in vitro cultured macrophages (Macs), which may not accurately reflect the LPS response of these innate immune cells in vivo. To overcome this limitation and to identify inflammatory genes in vivo, we have profiled genome-wide expression patterns in non-lymphoid, splenic myeloid cells extracted directly from LPS-treated mice. Genes encoding factors known to be involved in mediating or regulating inflammatory processes, such as cytokines and chemokines, as well as many genes whose immunological functions are not well known, were strongly induced by LPS after 3 h or 8 h of treatment. Most of the highly LPS-responsive genes that we randomly selected from the microarray data were independently confirmed by quantitative RT-PCR, implying that our microarray data are quite reliable. When our in vivo data were compared to previously reported microarray data for in vitro LPS-treated Macs, a significant proportion (∼20%) of the in vivo LPS-responsive genes defined in this study were specific to cells exposed to LPS in vivo, but a larger proportion of them (∼60%) were influenced by LPS in both in vitro and in vivo settings. This result indicates that our in vivo LPS-responsive gene set includes not only previously identified in vitro LPS-responsive genes but also novel LPS-responsive genes. Both types of genes would be a valuable resource in the future for understanding inflammatory responses in vivo.

Upregulation of CBLL1 in rat brain cortex after lipopolysaccharide treated

CBLL1 (Casitas B-lineage lymphoma-transforming sequence-like protein 1) also known as Hakai, was originally identified as an E3 ubiquitin-ligase for the E-cadherin complex. Recent data have provided evidences for novel biological functional role of CBLL1 during tumor progression and other diseases. However, its distribution and function in the central nervous system (CNS) remains unclear. In this study, we found CBLL1 was significant up-regulation in cerebral cortex after LPS administration and immunofluorescent labeling indicated that CBLL1 was localized striking in the neurons. We also investigated co-staining of CBLL1 and active-caspase-3 and cyclin D1 in the cerebral cortex following LPS administration. Based on our data, we speculated that CBLL1 might play an important role in neuronal apoptosis following LPS administration and might provide a basis for the further study on its role in cell cycle re-entry in neuroinflammation in CNS.

The role of C-terminal binding protein 2 in Schwann cell differentiation after sciatic nerve crush

C-terminal binding protein 2 (CtBP2), as a transcriptional repressor, plays an essential role in development and tumorigenesis. However, its distribution and function in peripheral system lesion and repair are still unknown. Here, we investigated the spatiotemporal expression of CtBP2 in rat sciatic nerve crush model. Western blot analysis revealed that CtBP2 was expressed in normal sciatic nerve. It gradually decreased, reached minimal levels at 7 days after crush, and then returned to the normal level at 4 weeks. We observed that CtBP2 is mainly expressed in Schwann cells (SCs). In vitro, we induced SC differentiation via cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and found that CtBP2 expression was downregulated during the process of differentiation. CtBP2-specific siRNA inhibited the cAMP-induced expression of the immature SC marker P75(NTR), and exogenous CtBP2 expression upregulated the expression of P75(NTR). Taken together, we hypothesized that peripheral nerve crush-induced downregulation of CtBP2 in the sciatic nerve was associated with SC differentiation, and CtBP2 likely played an important role in peripheral nerve injury and regeneration.