Using the circumplex model of affect to study valence and arousal ratings of emotional faces by children and adults with autism spectrum disorders

Inferential Emotion Tracking reveals impaired context-based emotion processing in individuals with high Autism Quotient scores

Emotion perception is essential for successful social interactions and maintaining long-term relationships with friends and family. Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) experience social communication deficits and have reported difficulties in facial expression recognition. However, emotion recognition depends on more than just processing face expression; context is critically important to correctly infer the emotions of others. Whether context-based emotion processing is impacted in those with Autism remains unclear. Here, we used a recently developed context-based emotion perception task, called Inferential Emotion Tracking (IET), and investigated whether individuals who scored high on the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) had deficits in context-based emotion perception. Using 34 videos (including Hollywood movies, home videos, and documentaries), we tested 102 participants as they continuously tracked the affect (valence and arousal) of a blurred-out, invisible character. We found that individual differences in Autism Quotient scores were more strongly correlated with IET task accuracy than they are with traditional face emotion perception tasks. This correlation remained significant even when controlling for potential covarying factors, general intelligence, and performance on traditional face perception tasks. These findings suggest that individuals with ASD may have impaired perception of contextual information, it reveals the importance of developing ecologically relevant emotion perception tasks in order to better assess and treat ASD, and it provides a new direction for further research on context-based emotion perception deficits in ASD.

Basic emotion recognition of children on the autism spectrum is enhanced in music and typical for faces and voices

In contrast with findings of reduced facial and vocal emotional recognition (ER) accuracy, children on the autism spectrum (AS) demonstrate comparable ER skills to those of typically-developing (TD) children using music. To understand the specificity of purported ER differences, the goal of this study was to examine ER from music compared with faces and voices among children on the AS and TD children. Twenty-five children on the AS and 23 TD children (6-13 years) completed an ER task, using categorical (happy, sad, fear) and dimensional (valence, arousal) ratings, of emotions presented via music, faces, or voices. Compared to the TD group, the AS group showed a relative ER strength from music, and comparable performance from faces and voices. Although both groups demonstrated greater vocal ER accuracy, the children on the AS performed equally well with music and faces, whereas the TD children performed better with faces than with music. Both groups performed comparably with dimensional ratings, except for greater variability by the children on the AS in valence ratings for happy emotions. These findings highlight a need to re-examine ER of children on the AS, and to consider how facilitating strengths-based approaches can re-shape our thinking about and support for persons on the AS.

Emotional response evoked by viewing facial expression pictures leads to higher temporal resolution

We examined the effects of emotional response, with different levels of valence and arousal, on the temporal resolution of visual processing by using photos of various facial expressions. As an index of the temporal resolution of visual processing, we measured the minimum lengths of the noticeable durations for desaturated photographs using the method of constant stimuli by switching colorful facial expression photographs to desaturated versions of the same photographs. Experiments 1 and 2 used facial photographs that evoke various degrees of arousal and valence. Those photographs were prepared not only in an upright orientation but also in an inverted orientation to reduce emotional response without changing the photographs' image properties. Results showed that the minimum duration to notice monochrome photographs for anger, fear, and joy was shorter than that for a neutral face when viewing upright face photographs but not when viewing inverted face photographs. For Experiment 3, we used facial expression photographs to evoke various degrees of arousal. Results showed that the temporal resolution of visual processing increased with the degree of arousal. These results suggest that the arousal of emotional responses evoked by viewing facial expressions might increase the temporal resolution of visual processing.

Differential extrinsic brain network connectivity and social cognitive task-specific demands in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Few studies have used task-based functional connectivity (FC) magnetic resonance imaging to examine emotion-processing during the critical neurodevelopmental period of adolescence in Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs). Moreover, task designs with pervasive confounds (e.g., lack of appropriate controls) persist because they activate neural circuits of interest reliably. As an alternative approach to "subtracting" activity from putative control conditions, we propose examining FC across an entire task run. By pivoting our analysis and interpretation of existing paradigms, we may better understand neural response to non-focal instances of socially-relevant stimuli that approximate real-world experiences more closely. Hence, using two well-established affective tasks (face-viewing, face-matching) with diverging social-cognitive demands, we investigated extrinsic FC from amygdala (AMG) and fusiform gyrus (FG) seeds in typically-developing (TD; N = 17) and ASD (N = 17) male adolescents (10-18 yo) and clinical correlations (Social Communication Questionnaire; SCQ) of group FC differences. Participant data (4TD, 6ASD) with excessive head-motion were excluded from final analysis. Direct between-group comparisons revealed significant differences between groups for neural response but not task performance (accuracy, reaction time). During face-viewing, we found greater FC from AMG and FG seeds for ASD participants (ASD > TD) in regions involved in the Default Mode and Fronto-Parietal Task Control Networks. During face-matching, we found greater FC from AMG and FG seeds for TD participants (TD > ASD), in regions associated with the Salience, Dorsal Attention, and Somatosensory Networks. SCQ scores correlated positively with regions with group differences on the face-viewing task and negatively with regions identified for the face-matching task. Task-dependent group differences in FC despite comparable behavioral performance suggest that high-functioning ASD may wield compensatory strategies; clinically-correlated FC patterns may associate with differential task-demands, ecological validity, and context-dependent processing. Employing this novel approach may further the development of targeted therapeutic interventions informed by individual differences in the highly heterogeneous ASD population.

A probabilistic map of emotional experiences during competitive social interactions

Theories of emotion and decision-making argue that negative, high arousing emotions—such as anger—motivate competitive social choice (e.g., punishing and defecting). However, given the long-standing challenge of quantifying emotion and the narrow framework in which emotion is traditionally examined, it remains unclear which emotions are actually associated with motivating these types of choices. To address this gap, we combine machine learning algorithms with a measure of affect that is agnostic to any specific emotion label. The result is a probabilistic map of emotion that is used to classify the specific emotions experienced by participants in a variety of social interactions (Ultimatum Game, Prisoner’s Dilemma, and Public Goods Game). Our results reveal that punitive and uncooperative choices are linked to a diverse array of negative, neutrally arousing emotions, such as sadness and disappointment, while only weakly linked to anger. These findings stand in contrast to the commonly held assumption that anger drives decisions to punish, defect, and freeride—thus, offering new insight into the role of emotion in motiving social choice.

Emotions motivate decision-making but are difficult to measure. Here the authors use a data driven, machine learning approach to reveal that social choices are linked to a diverse array of emotions, including disappointment and sadness.

Automated Affective Computing Based on Bio-Signals Analysis and Deep Learning Approach

Extensive possibilities of applications have rendered emotion recognition ineluctable and challenging in the fields of computer science as well as in human-machine interaction and affective computing. Fields that, in turn, are increasingly requiring real-time applications or interactions in everyday life scenarios. However, while extremely desirable, an accurate and automated emotion classification approach remains a challenging issue. To this end, this study presents an automated emotion recognition model based on easily accessible physiological signals and deep learning (DL) approaches. As a DL algorithm, a Feedforward Neural Network was employed in this study. The network outcome was further compared with canonical machine learning algorithms such as random forest (RF). The developed DL model relied on the combined use of wearables and contactless technologies, such as thermal infrared imaging. Such a model is able to classify the emotional state into four classes, derived from the linear combination of valence and arousal (referring to the circumplex model of affect’s four-quadrant structure) with an overall accuracy of 70% outperforming the 66% accuracy reached by the RF model. Considering the ecological and agile nature of the technique used the proposed model could lead to innovative applications in the affective computing field.

The Effect of Momentary Affect on Substance Use among Young Adults Who Experience Homelessness

IntroductionLittle is known about the momentary patterns and predictors of substance use among young adults who experience homelessness. To enhance understanding of substance use patterns, smartphone-based ecological momentary assessment (EMA) was utilized to examine the real-time association between affect and substance use. Methods: 251 young adults (aged 18-27) with history of homelessness were recruited from supportive housing programs and drop-in facilities in Los Angeles. Exploratory factor analysis was used to examine the latent structure of positive and negative affective states and mixed-effects logistic regression models were completed separately for both the full remaining sample (n = 227) and a subsample of alcohol or cannabis users (n = 145) to evaluate whether positive or negative affect predicted lead, recent, or lagged substance use. Results: Greater positive affect within-person was associated with greater odds of alcohol or cannabis use within the past two hours, and participants who reported feeling more negative than their peers experienced greater odds of reporting use within the past 4 h and the following two hours. Conclusion: Results suggest that individuals experience a heightened positive mood compared to their own average mood, concurrently or immediately after engaging in alcohol or cannabis use. Heightened positive mood might be an anticipatory effect of drinking or cannabis use. Future research should consider a longer study period to capture multiple drinking or drug use events over a longer period and consider more environmental exposures that may influence the frequency or intensity of substance use.

Symmetry in Emotional and Visual Similarity between Neutral and Negative Faces

Is Mr. Hyde more similar to his alter ego Dr. Jekyll, because of their physical identity, or to Jack the Ripper, because both evoke fear and loathing? The relative weight of emotional and visual dimensions in similarity judgements is still unclear. We expected an asymmetric effect of these dimensions on similarity perception, such that faces that express the same or similar feeling are judged as more similar than different emotional expressions of same person. We selected 10 male faces with different expressions. Each face posed one neutral expression and one emotional expression (five disgust, five fear). We paired these expressions, resulting in 190 pairs, varying either in emotional expressions, physical identity, or both. Twenty healthy participants rated the similarity of paired faces on a 7-point scale. We report a symmetric effect of emotional expression and identity on similarity judgements, suggesting that people may perceive Mr. Hyde to be just as similar to Dr. Jekyll (identity) as to Jack the Ripper (emotion). We also observed that emotional mismatch decreased perceived similarity, suggesting that emotions play a prominent role in similarity judgements. From an evolutionary perspective, poor discrimination between emotional stimuli might endanger the individual.

A 10.13µJ/Classification 2-Channel Deep Neural Network Based SoC for Negative Emotion Outburst Detection of Autistic Children

An electroencephalogram (EEG)-based non-invasive 2-channel neuro-feedback SoC is presented to predict and report negative emotion outbursts (NEOB) of Autistic patients. The SoC incorporates area-and-power efficient dual-channel Analog Front-End (AFE), and a deep neural network (DNN) emotion classification processor. The classification processor utilizes only the two-feature vector per channel to minimize the area and overfitting problems. The 4-layers customized DNN classification processor is integrated on-sensor to predict the NEOB. The AFE comprises two entirely shared EEG channels using sampling capacitors to reduce the area by 30%. Moreover, it achieves an overall integrated input-referred noise, NEF, and crosstalk of 0.55 µV_RMS, 2.71, and -79 dB, respectively. The 16 mm² SoC is implemented in 0.18 um 1P6M, CMOS process and consumes 10.13 μJ/classification for 2 channel operation while achieving an average accuracy of >85% on multiple emotion databases and real-time testing.

Acute Effects of a Single Bout of Walking on Affective Responses in Patients with Major Depressive Disorder

Exercise programs are considered an effective (add-on) treatment option for depressive disorders. However, little is known about the acute effects of exercise on affective responses in in-patient settings. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to compare the effects of a single 30-min bout of walking on affective responses to a passive control condition in patients with major depressive disorder during treatment in a mental health center. In total, 23 in-patients were exposed to two conditions (duration: 30 min) using a within-subject design: an exercise (light-moderate walking outdoors) and a passive control condition (sitting and reading). Affective responses were assessed based on the Circumplex Model in four phases: pre, during, post, and two hours following the conditions. The main results include a significantly larger pre-post increase in energetic arousal in the exercise condition compared to the control condition, p = 0.012, η_p² = 0.25, but no significantly different pre-follow-up change between conditions, p = 0.093, η_p² = 0.12. Negatively valenced affective responses showed significantly stronger pre-post decreases after the exercise condition compared to the passive control condition, p < 0.036, η_p² > 0.18. Positively valenced affective response activity showed a pre-post increase in the exercise condition and a pre-post decrease in the passive control condition, p = 0.017, η_p² = 0.23. The higher-activated, positively valenced immediate response of light- to moderate-intensity walking may serve as an acute emotion regulation in patients with major depressive disorder and provide a favorable state for adherence to exercise programs.

Heart rate variability monitoring for emotion and disorders of emotion

BACKGROUND

Emotion is composed of cognitive processing, physiological response and behavioral reaction. Heart rate variability (HRV) refers to the fluctuations between consecutive heartbeat cycles, and is considered as a non-invasive method for evaluating cardiac autonomic function. HRV analysis plays an important role in emotional study and detection.

OBJECTIVE

In this paper, the physiological foundation of HRV is briefly described, and then the relevant literature relating to HRV-based emotion studies for the performance of HRV in different emotions, emotion recognition, the evaluation of emotional disorders, HRV biofeedback, as well as HRV-based emotion analysis and management enhanced by wearable devices, are reviewed.

SIGNIFICANCE

It is suggested that HRV is an effective tool for the measurement and regulation of emotional response, with a broad application prospect.

Caregiver Daily Reporting of Symptoms in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Observational Study Using Web and Mobile Apps

BACKGROUND

Currently, no medications are approved to treat core symptoms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). One barrier to ASD medication development is the lack of validated outcome measures able to detect symptom change. Current ASD interventions are often evaluated using retrospective caregiver reports that describe general clinical presentation but often require recall of specific behaviors weeks after they occur, potentially reducing accuracy of the ratings. My JAKE, a mobile and Web-based mobile health (mHealth) app that is part of the Janssen Autism Knowledge Engine-a dynamically updated clinical research system-was designed to help caregivers of individuals with ASD to continuously log symptoms, record treatments, and track progress, to mitigate difficulties associated with retrospective reporting.

OBJECTIVE

My JAKE was deployed in an exploratory, noninterventional clinical trial to evaluate its utility and acceptability to monitor clinical outcomes in ASD. Hypotheses regarding relationships among daily tracking of symptoms, behavior, and retrospective caregiver reports were tested.

METHODS

Caregivers of individuals with ASD aged 6 years to adults (N=144) used the My JAKE app to make daily reports on their child's sleep quality, affect, and other self-selected specific behaviors across the 8- to 10-week observational study. The results were compared with commonly used paper-and-pencil scales acquired over a concurrent period at regular 4-week intervals.

RESULTS

Caregiver reporting of behaviors in real time was successfully captured by My JAKE. On average, caregivers made reports 2-3 days per week across the study period. Caregivers were positive about their use of the system, with over 50% indicating that they would like to use My JAKE to track behavior outside of a clinical trial. More positive average daily reporting of overall type of day was correlated with 4 weekly reports of lower caregiver burden made at 4-week intervals (r=-0.27, P=.006, n=88) and with ASD symptoms (r=-0.42, P<.001, n=112).

CONCLUSIONS

My JAKE reporting aligned with retrospective Web-based or paper-and-pencil scales. Use of mHealth apps, such as My JAKE, has the potential to increase the validity and accuracy of caregiver-reported outcomes and could be a useful way of identifying early changes in response to intervention. Such systems may also assist caregivers in tracking symptoms and behavior outside of a clinical trial, help with personalized goal setting, and monitoring of progress, which could collectively improve understanding of and quality of life for individuals with ASD and their families.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02668991; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02668991.

An Observational Study With the Janssen Autism Knowledge Engine (JAKE®) in Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorder

Objective: The Janssen Autism Knowledge Engine (JAKE®) is a clinical research outcomes assessment system developed to more sensitively measure treatment outcomes and identify subpopulations in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Here we describe JAKE and present results from its digital phenotyping (My JAKE) and biosensor (JAKE Sense) components. Methods: An observational, non-interventional, prospective study of JAKE in children and adults with ASD was conducted at nine sites in the United States. Feedback on JAKE usability was obtained from caregivers. JAKE Sense included electroencephalography, eye tracking, electrocardiography, electrodermal activity, facial affect analysis, and actigraphy. Caregivers of individuals with ASD reported behaviors using My JAKE. Results from My JAKE and JAKE Sense were compared to traditional ASD symptom measures. Results: Individuals with ASD (N = 144) and a cohort of typically developing (TD) individuals (N = 41) participated in JAKE Sense. Most caregivers reported that overall use and utility of My JAKE was "easy" (69%, 74/108) or "very easy" (74%, 80/108). My JAKE could detect differences in ASD symptoms as measured by traditional methods. The majority of biosensors included in JAKE Sense captured sizable amounts of quality data (i.e., 93-100% of eye tracker, facial affect analysis, and electrocardiogram data was of good quality), demonstrated differences between TD and ASD individuals, and correlated with ASD symptom scales. No significant safety events were reported. Conclusions: My JAKE was viewed as easy or very easy to use by caregivers participating in research outside of a clinical study. My JAKE sensitively measured a broad range of ASD symptoms. JAKE Sense biosensors were well-tolerated. JAKE functioned well when used at clinical sites previously inexperienced with some of the technologies. Lessons from the study will optimize JAKE for use in clinical trials to assess ASD interventions. Additionally, because biosensors were able to detect features differentiating TD and ASD individuals, and also were correlated with standardized symptom scales, these measures could be explored as potential biomarkers for ASD and as endpoints in future clinical studies. Clinical Trial Registration: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02668991 identifier: NCT02668991.

Detecting Happiness Using Hyperspectral Imaging Technology

Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) technology can be used to detect human emotions based on the power of material discrimination from their faces. In this paper, HSI is used to remotely sense and distinguish blood chromophores in facial tissues and acquire an evaluation indicator (tissue oxygen saturation, StO₂) using an optical absorption model. This study explored facial analysis while people were showing spontaneous expressions of happiness during social interaction. Happiness, as a psychological emotion, has been shown to be strongly linked to other activities such as physiological reaction and facial expression. Moreover, facial expression as a communicative motor behavior likely arises from musculoskeletal anatomy, neuromuscular activity, and individual personality. This paper quantified the neuromotor movements of tissues surrounding some regions of interest (ROIs) on smiling happily. Next, we selected six regions—the forehead, eye, nose, cheek, mouth, and chin—according to a facial action coding system (FACS). Nineteen segments were subsequently partitioned from the above ROIs. The affective data (StO₂) of 23 young adults were acquired by HSI while the participants expressed emotions (calm or happy), and these were used to compare the significant differences in the variations of StO₂ between the different ROIs through repeated measures analysis of variance. Results demonstrate that happiness causes different distributions in the variations of StO₂ for the above ROIs; these are explained in depth in the article. This study establishes that facial tissue oxygen saturation is a valid and reliable physiological indicator of happiness and merits further research.

Differences in adult and adolescent listeners' ratings of valence and arousal in emotional prosody

Judgments of emotional stimuli's valence and arousal can differ based on the perceiver's age. With most of the existing literature on age-related changes in such ratings based on perceptions of visually-presented pictures or words, less is known about how youth and adults perceive and rate the affective information contained in auditory emotional stimuli. The current study examined age-related differences in adolescent (n = 31; 45% female; aged 12-17, M = 14.35, SD = 1.68) and adult listeners' (n = 30; 53% female; aged 21-30, M = 26.20 years, SD = 2.98) ratings of the valence and arousal of spoken words conveying happiness, anger, and a neutral expression. We also fitted closed curves to the average ratings for each emotional expression to determine their relative position on the valence-arousal plane of an affective circumplex. Compared to adults, adolescents' ratings of emotional prosody were generally higher in valence, but more constricted in range for both valence and arousal. This pattern of ratings is suggestive of lesser differentiation amongst emotional categories' holistic properties, which may have implications for the successful recognition and appropriate response to vocal emotional cues in adolescents' social environments.

Cortical responses to dynamic emotional facial expressions generalize across stimuli, and are sensitive to task-relevance, in adults with and without Autism

Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) report difficulties extracting meaningful information from dynamic and complex social cues, like facial expressions. The nature and mechanisms of these difficulties remain unclear. Here we tested whether that difficulty can be traced to the pattern of activity in "social brain" regions, when viewing dynamic facial expressions. In two studies, adult participants (male and female) watched brief videos of a range of positive and negative facial expressions, while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (Study 1: ASD n = 16, control n = 21; Study 2: ASD n = 22, control n = 30). Patterns of hemodynamic activity differentiated among facial emotional expressions in left and right superior temporal sulcus, fusiform gyrus, and parts of medial prefrontal cortex. In both control participants and high-functioning individuals with ASD, we observed (i) similar responses to emotional valence that generalized across facial expressions and animated social events; (ii) similar flexibility of responses to emotional valence, when manipulating the task-relevance of perceived emotions; and (iii) similar responses to a range of emotions within valence. Altogether, the data indicate that there was little or no group difference in cortical responses to isolated dynamic emotional facial expressions, as measured with fMRI. Difficulties with real-world social communication and social interaction in ASD may instead reflect differences in initiating and maintaining contingent interactions, or in integrating social information over time or context.

Empathy and face processing in adults with and without autism spectrum disorder

Many factors contribute to social difficulties in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The goal of the present work was to determine whether atypicalities in how individuals with ASD process static, socially engaging faces persist when nonrigid facial motion cues are present. We also sought to explore the relationships between various face processing abilities and individual differences in autism symptom severity and traits such as empathy. Participants included 16 adults with ASD without intellectual impairment and 16 sex- and age-matched controls. Mean Verbal IQ was comparable across groups [t(30) = 0.70, P = 0.49]. The two groups responded similarly to many of the experimental manipulations; however, relative to controls, participants with ASD responded more slowly to dynamic expressive faces, even when no judgment was required; were less accurate at identity matching with static and dynamic faces; and needed more time to make identity and expression judgments [F(1, 30) ≥ 6.37, P ≤ 0.017, η_p²  ≥ 0.175 in all cases], particularly when the faces were moving [F(1, 30) = 3.40, P = 0.072, η_p²  = 0.104]. In the full sample, as social autistic traits increased and empathic skills declined, participants needed more time to judge static identity, and static or dynamic expressions [0.43 < |r_s | < 0.56]. The results suggest that adults with ASD show general impairments in face and motion processing and support the view that an examination of individual variation in particular personality traits and abilities is important for advancing our understanding of face perception. Autism Res 2018, 11: 942-955. © 2018 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

LAY SUMMARY

Our findings suggest that people with ASD have problems processing expressive faces, especially when seen in motion. It is important to learn who is most at risk for face processing problems, given that in the general population such problems appear to be linked to impaired social skills and empathy. By studying relationships between different abilities and traits, we may be able to find better ways to diagnose and support all people on the autism spectrum.

Experience Sampling of Positive Affect in Adolescents with Autism: Feasibility and Preliminary Findings

BACKGROUND

Experience sampling is a powerful method for obtaining ecologically valid data from research participants in real-world contexts. Given the urgent need for innovative and sensitive outcome measures in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) research, the present study sought to examine the feasibility of using experience sampling of positive affect and behavior in adolescents with ASD.

METHOD

Nineteen high functioning adolescents with ASD and 20 sex and age matched controls completed smartphone- and Qualtrics® -based experience sampling of positive affect and behavior six times over four days.

RESULTS

Adherence was excellent: adolescents with ASD completed 85% of the assessments, compared to 93% in controls, and response rates were not impacted by age or IQ. Groups did not differ in positive affect overall or as a function of activities, nor did groups differ in the proportion of assessments completed during social or nonsocial activities. However, groups did differ in the proportion of assessments completed during preferred activities.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that smartphone- and Qualtrics® -based experience sampling with high functioning adolescents with ASD is feasible and captures real-world behaviors that would not be possible using laboratory-based measures.

Differences in neural activity when processing emotional arousal and valence in autism spectrum disorders

Individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) often have difficulty recognizing and interpreting facial expressions of emotion, which may impair their ability to navigate and communicate successfully in their social, interpersonal environments. Characterizing specific differences between individuals with ASD and their typically developing (TD) counterparts in the neural activity subserving their experience of emotional faces may provide distinct targets for ASD interventions. Thus we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and a parametric experimental design to identify brain regions in which neural activity correlated with ratings of arousal and valence for a broad range of emotional faces. Participants (51 ASD, 84 TD) were group-matched by age, sex, IQ, race, and socioeconomic status. Using task-related change in blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) fMRI signal as a measure, and covarying for age, sex, FSIQ, and ADOS scores, we detected significant differences across diagnostic groups in the neural activity subserving the dimension of arousal but not valence. BOLD-signal in TD participants correlated inversely with ratings of arousal in regions associated primarily with attentional functions, whereas BOLD-signal in ASD participants correlated positively with arousal ratings in regions commonly associated with impulse control and default-mode activity. Only minor differences were detected between groups in the BOLD signal correlates of valence ratings. Our findings provide unique insight into the emotional experiences of individuals with ASD. Although behavioral responses to face-stimuli were comparable across diagnostic groups, the corresponding neural activity for our ASD and TD groups differed dramatically. The near absence of group differences for valence correlates and the presence of strong group differences for arousal correlates suggest that individuals with ASD are not atypical in all aspects of emotion-processing. Studying these similarities and differences may help us to understand the origins of divergent interpersonal emotional experience in persons with ASD. Hum Brain Mapp 37:443-461, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Social-cognitive, physiological, and neural mechanisms underlying emotion regulation impairments: understanding anxiety in autism spectrum disorder

Anxiety is one of the most common clinical problems among children, adolescents, and adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), yet we know little about its etiology in the context of ASD. We posit that emotion regulation (ER) impairments are a risk factor for anxiety in ASD. Specifically, we propose that one reason why anxiety disorders are so frequently comorbid with ASD is because ER impairments are ubiquitous to ASD, stemming from socio-cognitive, physiological, and neurological processes related to impaired cognitive control, regulatory processes, and arousal. In this review, we offer a developmental model of how ER impairments may arise in ASD, and when (moderating influences) and how (meditational mechanisms) they result in anxiety.