A heterogeneous "resting" pool of synaptic vesicles that is dynamically interchanged across boutons in mammalian CNS synapses

Role of adaptor protein complexes in generating functionally distinct synaptic vesicle pools

The synaptic vesicle (SV) cycle ensures the release of neurotransmitters and the replenishment of SVs to sustain neuronal activity. Multiple endocytosis and sorting pathways contribute to the recapture of the SV membrane and proteins after fusion. Adaptor protein (AP) complexes are among the critical components of the SV retrieval machinery. The canonical clathrin adaptor AP2 ensures the replenishment of most SVs across many neuronal populations. An alternative AP1/AP3-dependent process mediates the formation of a subset of SVs that differ from AP2 vesicles in molecular composition and respond preferentially during higher frequency firing. Furthermore, recent studies show that vesicular transporters for different neurotransmitters depend to a different extent on the AP3 pathway and this affects the release properties of the respective neurotransmitters. This review focuses on the current understanding of the AP-dependent molecular and functional diversity among SVs. We also discuss the contribution of these pathways to the regulation of neurotransmitter release across neuronal populations.

Huntingtin recruits KIF1A to transport synaptic vesicle precursors along the mouse axon to support synaptic transmission and motor skill learning

Neurotransmitters are released at synapses by synaptic vesicles (SVs), which originate from SV precursors (SVPs) that have traveled along the axon. Because each synapse maintains a pool of SVs, only a small fraction of which are released, it has been thought that axonal transport of SVPs does not affect synaptic function. Here, studying the corticostriatal network both in microfluidic devices and in mice, we find that phosphorylation of the Huntingtin protein (HTT) increases axonal transport of SVPs and synaptic glutamate release by recruiting the kinesin motor KIF1A. In mice, constitutive HTT phosphorylation causes SV over-accumulation at synapses, increases the probability of SV release, and impairs motor skill learning on the rotating rod. Silencing KIF1A in these mice restored SV transport and motor skill learning to wild-type levels. Axonal SVP transport within the corticostriatal network thus influences synaptic plasticity and motor skill learning.

Synaptic logistics: Competing over shared resources

High turnover rates of synaptic proteins imply that synapses constantly need to replace their constituent building blocks. This requires sophisticated supply chains and potentially exposes synapses to shortages as they compete for limited resources. Interestingly, competition in neurons has been observed at different scales. Whether it is competition of receptors for binding sites inside a single synapse or synapses fighting for resources to grow. Here we review the implications of such competition for synaptic function and plasticity. We identify multiple mechanisms that synapses use to safeguard themselves against supply shortages and identify a fundamental neurologistic trade-off governing the sizes of reserve pools of essential synaptic building blocks.

Propofol attenuates kinesin-mediated axonal vesicle transport and fusion

Propofol is a widely used general anesthetic, yet the understanding of its cellular effects is fragmentary. General anesthetics are not as innocuous as once believed and have a wide range of molecular targets that include kinesin motors. Propofol, ketamine, and etomidate reduce the distances that Kinesin-1 KIF5 and Kinesin-2 KIF3 travel along microtubules in vitro. These transport kinesins are highly expressed in the CNS, and their dysfunction leads to a range of human pathologies including neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases. While in vitro data suggest that general anesthetics may disrupt kinesin transport in neurons, this hypothesis remains untested. Here we find that propofol treatment of hippocampal neurons decreased vesicle transport mediated by Kinesin-1 KIF5 and Kinesin-3 KIF1A ∼25-60%. Propofol treatment delayed delivery of the KIF5 cargo NgCAM to the distal axon. Because KIF1A participates in axonal transport of presynaptic vesicles, we tested whether prolonged propofol treatment affects synaptic vesicle fusion mediated by VAMP2. The data show that propofol-induced transport delay causes a significant decrease in vesicle fusion in distal axons. These results are the first to link a propofol-induced delay in neuronal trafficking to a decrease in axonal vesicle fusion, which may alter physiological function during and after anesthesia.

Inositol hexakisphosphate kinases differentially regulate trafficking of vesicular glutamate transporters 1 and 2

Inositol pyrophosphates have been implicated in cellular signaling and membrane trafficking, including synaptic vesicle (SV) recycling. Inositol hexakisphosphate kinases (IP6Ks) and their product, diphosphoinositol pentakisphosphate (PP-IP₅ or IP7), directly and indirectly regulate proteins important in vesicle recycling by the activity-dependent bulk endocytosis pathway (ADBE). In the present study, we show that two isoforms, IP6K1 and IP6K3, are expressed in axons. The role of the kinases in SV recycling are investigated using pharmacologic inhibition, shRNA knockdown, and IP6K1 and IP6K3 knockout mice. Live-cell imaging experiments use optical reporters of SV recycling based on vesicular glutamate transporter isoforms, VGLUT1- and VGLUT2-pHluorins (pH), which recycle differently. VGLUT1-pH recycles by classical AP-2 dependent endocytosis under moderate stimulation conditions, while VGLUT2-pH recycles using AP-1 and AP-3 adaptor proteins as well. Using a short stimulus to release the readily releasable pool (RRP), we show that IP6K1 KO increases exocytosis of both VGLUT1-and VGLUT2-pH, while IP6K3 KO decreases the amount of both transporters in the RRP. In electrophysiological experiments we measure glutamate signaling with short stimuli and under the intense stimulation conditions that trigger bulk endocytosis. IP6K1 KO increases synaptic facilitation and IP6K3 KO decreases facilitation compared to wild type in CA1 hippocampal Schaffer collateral synapses. After intense stimulation, the rate of endocytosis of VGLUT2-pH, but not VGLUT1-pH, is increased by knockout, knockdown, and pharmacologic inhibition of IP6Ks. Thus IP6Ks differentially affect the endocytosis of two SV protein cargos that use different endocytic pathways. However, while IP6K1 KO and IP6K3 KO exert similar effects on endocytosis after stimulation, the isoforms exert different effects on exocytosis earlier in the stimulus and on the early phase of glutamate release. Taken together, the data indicate a role for IP6Ks both in exocytosis early in the stimulation period and in endocytosis, particularly under conditions that may utilize AP-1/3 adaptors.

Single vesicle tracking for studying synaptic vesicle dynamics in small central synapses

Sustained neurotransmission is driven by a continuous supply of synaptic vesicles to the release sites and modulated by synaptic vesicle dynamics. However, synaptic vesicle dynamics in synapses remain elusive because of technical limitations. Recent advances in fluorescence imaging techniques have enabled the tracking of single synaptic vesicles in small central synapses in living neurons. Single vesicle tracking has uncovered a wealth of new information about synaptic vesicle dynamics both within and outside presynaptic terminals, showing that single vesicle tracking is an effective tool for studying synaptic vesicle dynamics. Particularly, single vesicle tracking with high spatiotemporal resolution has revealed the dependence of synaptic vesicle dynamics on the location, stages of recycling, and neuronal activity. This review summarizes the recent findings from single synaptic vesicle tracking in small central synapses and their implications in synaptic transmission and pathogenic mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases.

Spontaneously Recycling Synaptic Vesicles Constitute Readily Releasable Vesicles in Intact Neuromuscular Synapses

Emerging evidence shows that spontaneous synaptic transmission plays crucial roles on neuronal functions through presynaptic molecular mechanisms distinct from that of action potential (AP)-evoked transmission. However, whether the synaptic vesicle (SV) population undergoing the two forms of transmission is segregated remains controversial due in part to the conflicting results observed in cultured neurons. Here we address this issue in intact neuromuscular synapses using transgenic zebrafish larvae expressing two different indicators targeted in the SVs: a pH-sensitive fluorescent protein, pHluorin, and a tag protein, HaloTag. By establishing a quantitative measure of recycled SV fractions, we found that ∼85% of SVs were mobilized by high-frequency AP firings. In contrast, spontaneously recycling SVs were mobilized only from <8% of SVs with a time constant of 45 min at 25°C, although prolonged AP inhibition mobilized an additional population with a delayed onset. The mobilization of the early-onset population was less temperature-sensitive and resistant to tetanus toxin, whereas that of the late-onset population was more sensitive to temperature and was inhibited by tetanus toxin, indicating that prolonged AP inhibition activated a distinct molecular machinery for spontaneous SV fusion. Therefore, the early-onset population limited to <8% was likely the only source of spontaneous release that occurred physiologically. We further showed that this limited population was independent from those reluctant to fuse during AP firing and was used in both the hypertonic stimulation and the immediate phase of AP-evoked releases, thereby matching the characteristics of the readily releasable pool.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Synaptic vesicles (SVs) are divided into functionally distinct pools depending on how they respond to action potential (AP) firing. The origin of SVs used for spontaneous fusion remains enigmatic despite intensive studies in cultured preparations. We addressed this question in intact neuromuscular synapses and provided two findings. First, prolonged AP inhibition activated a distinct population of fusion, which needs to be distinguished from genuine spontaneous fusion arising from a highly limited fraction. Second, the limited fraction observed early in the AP inhibition period exhibited the characteristics of readily releasable pool in the subsequent round of stimulation. Our study revealed that the origin of spontaneous SV fusion is restricted to the readily releasable pool among the SV pools involved in AP-evoked fusion.

Quantitative Analysis of Presynaptic Vesicle Luminal pH in Cultured Neurons

Newly generated synaptic vesicles (SVs) are re-acidified by the activity of the vacuolar-type H⁺-ATPases. Since H⁺ gradient across SV membrane drives neurotransmitter uptake into SVs, precise measurements of steady-state vesicular pH and dynamics of re-acidification process will provide important information concerning the H⁺-driven neurotransmitter uptake. Indeed, we recently demonstrated distinct features of steady state and dynamics of vesicular pH between glutamatergic vesicles and GABAergic vesicles in cultured hippocampal neurons. In this article, we focus on an experimental protocol and setup required to determine steady-state luminal pH of SVs in living neurons. This protocol is composed of efficient expression of a pH-sensitive fluorescent protein in the lumen of SVs in cultured neurons, and recordings of its fluorescence changes under a conventional fluorescent microscope during local applications of acidic buffer and ionophores-containing solution at a given pH. The method described here can be easily applied for measuring luminal pH of different types of secretory organelles and other acidic organelles such as lysosomes and endosomes in cultured cell preparations.

Cannabinoid receptor activation acutely increases synaptic vesicle numbers by activating synapsins in human synapses

Cannabis and cannabinoid drugs are central agents that are used widely recreationally and are employed broadly for treating psychiatric conditions. Cannabinoids primarily act by stimulating presynaptic CB1 receptors (CB1Rs), the most abundant G-protein-coupled receptors in brain. CB1R activation decreases neurotransmitter release by inhibiting presynaptic Ca²⁺ channels and induces long-term plasticity by decreasing cellular cAMP levels. Here we identified an unanticipated additional mechanism of acute cannabinoid signaling in presynaptic terminals that regulates the size of synaptic vesicle pools available for neurotransmitter release. Specifically, we show that activation of CB1Rs in human and mouse neurons rapidly recruits vesicles to nerve terminals by suppressing the cAMP-dependent phosphorylation of synapsins. We confirmed this unanticipated mechanism using conditional deletion of synapsin-1, the predominant synapsin isoform in human neurons, demonstrating that synapsin-1 significantly contributes to the CB1R-dependent regulation of neurotransmission. Interestingly, acute activation of the Gi-DREADD hM4D mimics the effect of CB1R activation in a synapsin-1-dependent manner, suggesting that the control of synaptic vesicle numbers by synapsin-1 phosphorylation is a general presynaptic mechanism of neuromodulation. Thus, we uncovered a CB1R-dependent presynaptic mechanism that rapidly regulates the organization and neurotransmitter release properties of synapses.

Nanoscale Remodeling of Functional Synaptic Vesicle Pools in Hebbian Plasticity

Vesicle pool properties are known determinants of synaptic efficacy, but their potential role as modifiable substrates in forms of Hebbian plasticity is still unclear. Here, we investigate this using a nanoscale readout of functionally recycled vesicles in natively wired hippocampal CA3→CA1 circuits undergoing long-term potentiation (LTP). We show that the total recycled vesicle pool is larger after plasticity induction, with the smallest terminals exhibiting the greatest relative expansion. Changes in the spatial organization of vesicles accompany potentiation including a specific increase in the number of recycled vesicles at the active zone, consistent with an ultrastructural remodeling component of synaptic strengthening. The cAMP-PKA pathway activator, forskolin, selectively mimics some features of LTP-driven changes, suggesting that distinct and independent modules of regulation accompany plasticity expression. Our findings provide evidence for a presynaptic locus of LTP encoded in the number and arrangement of functionally recycled vesicles, with relevance for models of long-term plasticity storage.

Synaptic vesicle traffic is supported by transient actin filaments and regulated by PKA and NO

Synaptic vesicles (SVs) can be pooled across multiple synapses, prompting questions about their dynamic allocation for neurotransmission and plasticity. We find that the axonal traffic of recycling vesicles is not supported by ubiquitous microtubule-based motility but relies on actin instead. Vesicles freed from synaptic clusters undergo ~1 µm bouts of active transport, initiated by nearby elongation of actin filaments. Long distance translocation arises when successive bouts of active transport were linked by periods of free diffusion. The availability of SVs for active transport can be promptly increased by protein kinase A, a key player in neuromodulation. Vesicle motion is in turn impeded by shutting off axonal actin polymerization, mediated by nitric oxide-cyclic GMP signaling leading to inhibition of RhoA. These findings provide a potential framework for coordinating post-and pre-synaptic strength, using retrograde regulation of axonal actin dynamics to mobilize and recruit presynaptic SV resources.

Activity-Dependent Nucleation of Dynamic Microtubules at Presynaptic Boutons Controls Neurotransmission

Control of microtubule (MT) nucleation and dynamics is critical for neuronal function. Whether MT nucleation is regulated at presynaptic boutons and influences overall presynaptic activity remains unknown. By visualizing MT plus-end dynamics at individual excitatory en passant boutons in axons of cultured hippocampal neurons and in hippocampal slices expressing EB3-EGFP and vGlut1-mCherry, we found that dynamic MTs preferentially grow from presynaptic boutons, show biased directionality in that they are almost always oriented toward the distal tip of the axon, and can be induced by neuronal activity. Silencing of γ-tubulin expression reduced presynaptic MT nucleation, and depletion of either HAUS1 or HAUS7-augmin subunits increased the percentage of retrograde comets initiated at boutons, indicating that γ-tubulin and augmin are required for activity-dependent de novo nucleation of uniformly distally oriented dynamic MTs. We analyzed the dynamics of a wide range of axonal organelles as well as synaptic vesicles (SVs) relative to vGlut1⁺ stable presynaptic boutons in a time window during which MT nucleation at boutons is promoted upon induction of neuronal activity, and we found that γ-tubulin-dependent presynaptic MT nucleation controls bidirectional (SV) interbouton transport and regulates evoked SV exocytosis. Hence, en passant boutons act as hotspots for activity-dependent de novo MT nucleation, which controls neurotransmission by providing dynamic tracks for bidirectional delivery of SVs between sites of neurotransmitter release.

Homeostatic Presynaptic Plasticity Is Specifically Regulated by P/Q-type Ca2+ Channels at Mammalian Hippocampal Synapses

Voltage-dependent Ca²⁺ channels (VGCC) represent the principal source of Ca²⁺ ions driving evoked neurotransmitter release at presynaptic boutons. In mammals, presynaptic Ca²⁺ influx is mediated mainly via P/Q-type and N-type VGCC, which differ in their properties. Changes in their relative contributions tune neurotransmission both during development and in Hebbian plasticity. However, whether this represents a functional motif also present in other forms of activity-dependent regulation is unknown. Here, we study the role of VGCC in homeostatic plasticity (HSP) in mammalian hippocampal neurons using optical techniques. We find that changes in evoked Ca²⁺ currents specifically through P/Q-type, but not N-type, VGCC mediate bidirectional homeostatic regulation of both neurotransmitter release efficacy and the size of the major synaptic vesicle pools. Selective dependence of HSP on P/Q-type VGCC in mammalian terminals has important implications for phenotypes associated with P/Q-type channelopathies, including migraine and epilepsy.

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P/Q-type VGCC regulate homeostatic synaptic plasticity (HSP) in mammals

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Changes in synaptic vesicle pool sizes during HSP are also mediated via P/Q-type VGCC

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Expression of HSP is independent of N-type VGCC regulation

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P/Q-type regulation of HSP may explain phenotypes of P/Q-type channelopathies

Diverse modes of synaptic signaling, regulation, and plasticity distinguish two classes of C. elegans glutamatergic neurons

Synaptic vesicle release properties vary between neuronal cell types, but in most cases the molecular basis of this heterogeneity is unknown. Here, we compare in vivo synaptic properties of two neuronal classes in the C. elegans central nervous system, using VGLUT-pHluorin to monitor synaptic vesicle exocytosis and retrieval in intact animals. We show that the glutamatergic sensory neurons AWCON and ASH have distinct synaptic dynamics associated with tonic and phasic synaptic properties, respectively. Exocytosis in ASH and AWCON is differentially affected by SNARE-complex regulators that are present in both neurons: phasic ASH release is strongly dependent on UNC-13, whereas tonic AWCON release relies upon UNC-18 and on the protein kinase C homolog PKC-1. Strong stimuli that elicit high calcium levels increase exocytosis and retrieval rates in AWCON, generating distinct tonic and evoked synaptic modes. These results highlight the differential deployment of shared presynaptic proteins in neuronal cell type-specific functions.

VGLUT2 Trafficking Is Differentially Regulated by Adaptor Proteins AP-1 and AP-3

Release of the major excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate by synaptic vesicle exocytosis depends on glutamate loading into synaptic vesicles by vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs). The two principal isoforms, VGLUT1 and 2, exhibit a complementary pattern of expression in adult brain that broadly distinguishes cortical (VGLUT1) and subcortical (VGLUT2) systems, and correlates with distinct physiological properties in synapses expressing these isoforms. Differential trafficking of VGLUT1 and 2 has been suggested to underlie their functional diversity. Increasing evidence suggests individual synaptic vesicle proteins use specific sorting signals to engage specialized biochemical mechanisms to regulate their recycling. We observed that VGLUT2 recycles differently in response to high frequency stimulation than VGLUT1. Here we further explore the trafficking of VGLUT2 using a pHluorin-based reporter, VGLUT2-pH. VGLUT2-pH exhibits slower rates of both exocytosis and endocytosis than VGLUT1-pH. VGLUT2-pH recycling is slower than VGLUT1-pH in both hippocampal neurons, which endogenously express mostly VGLUT1, and thalamic neurons, which endogenously express mostly VGLUT2, indicating that protein identity, not synaptic vesicle membrane or neuronal cell type, controls sorting. We characterize sorting signals in the C-terminal dileucine-like motif, which plays a crucial role in VGLUT2 trafficking. Disruption of this motif abolishes synaptic targeting of VGLUT2 and essentially eliminates endocytosis of the transporter. Mutational and biochemical analysis demonstrates that clathrin adaptor proteins (APs) interact with VGLUT2 at the dileucine-like motif. VGLUT2 interacts with AP-2, a well-studied adaptor protein for clathrin mediated endocytosis. In addition, VGLUT2 also interacts with the alternate adaptors, AP-1 and AP-3. VGLUT2 relies on distinct recycling mechanisms from VGLUT1. Abrogation of these differences by pharmacological and molecular inhibition reveals that these mechanisms are dependent on the adaptor proteins AP-1 and AP-3. Further, shRNA-mediated knockdown reveals differential roles for AP-1 and AP-3 in VGLUT2 recycling.

Dynamic Partitioning of Synaptic Vesicle Pools by the SNARE-Binding Protein Tomosyn

Neural networks engaged in high-frequency activity rely on sustained synaptic vesicle recycling and coordinated recruitment from functionally distinct synaptic vesicle (SV) pools. However, the molecular pathways matching neural activity to SV dynamics and release requirements remain unclear. Here we identify unique roles of SNARE-binding Tomosyn1 (Tomo1) proteins as activity-dependent substrates that regulate dynamics of SV pool partitioning at rat hippocampal synapses. Our analysis is based on monitoring changes in distinct functionally defined SV pools via V-Glut1-pHluorin fluorescence in cultured hippocampal neurons in response to alterations in presynaptic protein expression. Specifically, we find knockdown of Tomo1 facilitates release efficacy from the Readily Releasable Pool (RRP), and regulates SV distribution to the Total Recycling Pool (TRP), which is matched by a decrease in the SV Resting Pool. Notably, these effects were reversed by Tomo1 rescue and overexpression. Further, we identify that these actions of Tomo1 are regulated via activity-dependent phosphorylation by cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5). Assessment of molecular interactions that may contribute to these actions identified Tomo1 interaction with the GTP-bound state of Rab3A, an SV GTPase involved in SV targeting and presynaptic membrane tethering. In addition, Tomo1 via Rab3A-GTP was also observed to interact with Synapsin 1a/b cytoskeletal interacting proteins. Finally, our data indicate that Tomo1 regulation of SV pool sizes serves to adapt presynaptic neurotransmitter release to chronic silencing of network activity. Overall, the results establish Tomo1 proteins as central mediators in neural activity-dependent changes in SV distribution among SV pools.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Although information transfer at central synapses via sustained high-frequency neural activity requires coordinated synaptic vesicle (SV) recycling, the mechanism(s) by which synapses sense and dynamically modify SV pools to match network demands remains poorly defined. To advance understanding, we quantified SV pool sizes and their sensitivity to neural activity while altering Tomo1 expression, a putative regulator of the presynaptic Readily Releasable Pool. Remarkably, we find Tomo1 actions to extend beyond the Readily Releasable Pool to mediate the Total Recycling Pool and SV Resting Pool distribution, and this action is sensitive to neural activity through Cdk5 phosphorylation of Tomo1. Moreover, Tomo1 appears to exert these actions through interaction with Rab3A-GTP and synapsin proteins. Together, our results argue that Tomo1 is a central mediator of SV availability for neurotransmission.

Presynaptic morphology and vesicular composition determine vesicle dynamics in mouse central synapses

Transport of synaptic vesicles (SVs) in nerve terminals is thought to play essential roles in maintenance of neurotransmission. To identify factors modulating SV movements, we performed real-time imaging analysis of fluorescently labeled SVs in giant calyceal and conventional hippocampal terminals. Compared with small hippocampal terminals, SV movements in giant calyceal terminals were faster, longer and kinetically more heterogeneous. Morphological maturation of giant calyceal terminals was associated with an overall reduction in SV mobility and displacement heterogeneity. At the molecular level, SVs over-expressing vesicular glutamate transporter 1 (VGLUT1) showed higher mobility than VGLUT2-expressing SVs. Pharmacological disruption of the presynaptic microtubule network preferentially reduced long directional movements of SVs between release sites. Functionally, synaptic stimulation appeared to recruit SVs to active zones without significantly altering their mobility. Hence, the morphological features of nerve terminals and the molecular signature of vesicles are key elements determining vesicular dynamics and movements in central synapses.

Synaptotagmin-1- and Synaptotagmin-7-Dependent Fusion Mechanisms Target Synaptic Vesicles to Kinetically Distinct Endocytic Pathways

Synaptic vesicle recycling is essential for maintaining normal synaptic function. The coupling of exocytosis and endocytosis is assumed to be Ca²⁺ dependent, but the exact role of Ca²⁺ and its key effector synaptotagmin-1 (syt1) in regulation of endocytosis is poorly understood. Here, we probed the role of syt1 in single- as well as multi-vesicle endocytic events using high-resolution optical recordings. Our experiments showed that the slowed endocytosis phenotype previously reported after syt1 loss of function can also be triggered by other manipulations that promote asynchronous release such as Sr²⁺ substitution and complexin loss of function. The link between asynchronous release and slowed endocytosis was due to selective targeting of fused synaptic vesicles toward slow retrieval by the asynchronous release Ca²⁺ sensor synaptotagmin-7. In contrast, after single synaptic vesicle fusion, syt1 acted as an essential determinant of synaptic vesicle endocytosis time course by delaying the kinetics of vesicle retrieval in response to increasing Ca²⁺ levels.

Live imaging of inhibitory axons: Synapse formation as a dynamic trial-and-error process

In this review I discuss recent live imaging studies that demonstrate that synapses, and in particular inhibitory synapses, are highly dynamic structures. The ongoing changes of presynaptic boutons within axons emphasize the stochastic aspect of inhibitory synapse formation and paint a picture of a dynamic trial-and-error process. Furthermore, I discuss recent and previous insights in the molecular and mechanistic pathways that underlie synapse formation, with a specific focus on the formation of inhibitory presynaptic boutons.

Unique pH dynamics in GABAergic synaptic vesicles illuminates the mechanism and kinetics of GABA loading

GABA acts as the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian brain, shaping neuronal and circuit activity. For sustained synaptic transmission, synaptic vesicles (SVs) are required to be recycled and refilled with neurotransmitters using an H(+) electrochemical gradient. However, neither the mechanism underlying vesicular GABA uptake nor the kinetics of GABA loading in living neurons have been fully elucidated. To characterize the process of GABA uptake into SVs in functional synapses, we monitored luminal pH of GABAergic SVs separately from that of excitatory glutamatergic SVs in cultured hippocampal neurons. By using a pH sensor optimal for the SV lumen, we found that GABAergic SVs exhibited an unexpectedly higher resting pH (∼6.4) than glutamatergic SVs (pH ∼5.8). Moreover, unlike glutamatergic SVs, GABAergic SVs displayed unique pH dynamics after endocytosis that involved initial overacidification and subsequent alkalization that restored their resting pH. GABAergic SVs that lacked the vesicular GABA transporter (VGAT) did not show the pH overshoot and acidified further to ∼6.0. Comparison of luminal pH dynamics in the presence or absence of VGAT showed that VGAT operates as a GABA/H(+) exchanger, which is continuously required to offset GABA leakage. Furthermore, the kinetics of GABA transport was slower (τ > 20 s at physiological temperature) than that of glutamate uptake and may exceed the time required for reuse of exocytosed SVs, allowing reuse of incompletely filled vesicles in the presence of high demand for inhibitory transmission.

Functionally heterogeneous synaptic vesicle pools support diverse synaptic signalling

Synaptic communication between neurons is a highly dynamic process involving specialized structures. At the level of the presynaptic terminal, neurotransmission is ensured by fusion of vesicles to the membrane, which releases neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft. Depending on the level of activity experienced by the terminal, the spatiotemporal properties of calcium invasion will dictate the timing and the number of vesicles that need to be released. Diverse presynaptic firing patterns are translated to neurotransmitter release with a distinct temporal feature. Complex patterns of neurotransmitter release can be achieved when different vesicles respond to distinct calcium dynamics in the presynaptic terminal. Specific vesicles from different pools are recruited during various modes of release as the particular molecular composition of their membrane proteins define their functional properties. Such diversity endows the presynaptic terminal with the ability to respond to distinct physiological signals via the mobilization of specific subpopulation of vesicles. There are several mechanisms by which a diverse vesicle population could be generated in single presynaptic terminals, including distinct recycling pathways that utilize various adaptor proteins. Several additional factors could potentially contribute to the development of a heterogeneous vesicle pool such as specialized release sites, spatial segregation within the terminal and specialized delivery pathways. Among these factors molecular heterogeneity plays a central role in defining the functional properties of different subpopulations of vesicles.

Monitoring of vacuolar-type H+ ATPase-mediated proton influx into synaptic vesicles

During synaptic vesicle (SV) recycling, the vacuolar-type H(+) ATPase creates a proton electrochemical gradient (ΔμH(+)) that drives neurotransmitter loading into SVs. Given the low estimates of free luminal protons, it has been envisioned that the influx of a limited number of protons suffices to establish ΔμH(+). Consistent with this, the time constant of SV re-acidification was reported to be <5 s, much faster than glutamate loading (τ of ∼ 15 s) and thus unlikely to be rate limiting for neurotransmitter loading. However, such estimates have relied on pHluorin-based probes that lack sensitivity in the lower luminal pH range. Here, we reexamined re-acidification kinetics using the mOrange2-based probe that should report the SV pH more accurately. In recordings from cultured mouse hippocampal neurons, we found that re-acidification took substantially longer (τ of ∼ 15 s) than estimated previously. In addition, we found that the SV lumen exhibited a large buffering capacity (∼ 57 mm/pH), corresponding to an accumulation of ∼ 1200 protons during re-acidification. Together, our results uncover hitherto unrecognized robust proton influx and storage in SVs that can restrict the rate of neurotransmitter refilling.

Ca2+ Dependence of Synaptic Vesicle Endocytosis

Ca(2+)-dependent synaptic vesicle recycling is essential for structural homeostasis of synapses and maintenance of neurotransmission. Although, the executive role of intrasynaptic Ca(2+) transients in synaptic vesicle exocytosis is well established, identifying the exact role of Ca(2+) in endocytosis has been difficult. In some studies, Ca(2+) has been suggested as an essential trigger required to initiate synaptic vesicle retrieval, whereas others manipulating synaptic Ca(2+) concentrations reported a modulatory role for Ca(2+) leading to inhibition or acceleration of endocytosis. Molecular studies of synaptic vesicle endocytosis, on the other hand, have consistently focused on the roles of Ca(2+)-calmodulin dependent phosphatase calcineurin and synaptic vesicle protein synaptotagmin as potential Ca(2+) sensors for endocytosis. Most studies probing the role of Ca(2+) in endocytosis have relied on measurements of synaptic vesicle retrieval after strong stimulation. Strong stimulation paradigms elicit fusion and retrieval of multiple synaptic vesicles and therefore can be affected by several factors besides the kinetics and duration of Ca(2+) signals that include the number of exocytosed vesicles and accumulation of released neurotransmitters thus altering fusion and retrieval processes indirectly via retrograde signaling. Studies monitoring single synaptic vesicle endocytosis may help resolve this conundrum as in these settings the impact of Ca(2+) on synaptic fusion probability can be uncoupled from its putative role on synaptic vesicle retrieval. Future experiments using these single vesicle approaches will help dissect the specific role(s) of Ca(2+) and its sensors in synaptic vesicle endocytosis.

Vesicles derived via AP-3-dependent recycling contribute to asynchronous release and influence information transfer

Action potentials trigger synchronous and asynchronous neurotransmitter release. Temporal properties of both types of release could be altered in an activity-dependent manner. While the effects of activity-dependent changes in synchronous release on postsynaptic signal integration have been studied, the contribution of asynchronous release to information transfer during natural stimulus patterns is unknown. Here we find that during trains of stimulations, asynchronous release contributes to the precision of action potential firing. Our data show that this form of release is selectively diminished in AP-3b2 KO animals, which lack functional neuronal AP-3, an adaptor protein regulating vesicle formation from endosomes generated during bulk endocytosis. We find that in the absence of neuronal AP-3, asynchronous release is attenuated and the activity-dependent increase in the precision of action potential timing is compromised. Lack of asynchronous release decreases the capacity of synaptic information transfer and renders synaptic communication less reliable in response to natural stimulus patterns.

Synaptic bouton properties are tuned to best fit the prevailing firing pattern

The morphology of presynaptic specializations can vary greatly ranging from classical single-release-site boutons in the central nervous system to boutons of various sizes harboring multiple vesicle release sites. Multi-release-site boutons can be found in several neural contexts, for example at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) of body wall muscles of Drosophila larvae. These NMJs are built by two motor neurons forming two types of glutamatergic multi-release-site boutons with two typical diameters. However, it is unknown why these distinct nerve terminal configurations are used on the same postsynaptic muscle fiber. To systematically dissect the biophysical properties of these boutons we developed a full three-dimensional model of such boutons, their release sites and transmitter-harboring vesicles and analyzed the local vesicle dynamics of various configurations during stimulation. Here we show that the rate of transmission of a bouton is primarily limited by diffusion-based vesicle movements and that the probability of vesicle release and the size of a bouton affect bouton-performance in distinct temporal domains allowing for an optimal transmission of the neural signals at different time scales. A comparison of our in silico simulations with in vivo recordings of the natural motor pattern of both neurons revealed that the bouton properties resemble a well-tuned cooperation of the parameters release probability and bouton size, enabling a reliable transmission of the prevailing firing-pattern at diffusion-limited boutons. Our findings indicate that the prevailing firing-pattern of a neuron may determine the physiological and morphological parameters required for its synaptic terminals.

Activity-driven local ATP synthesis is required for synaptic function

Cognitive function is tightly related to metabolic state, but the locus of this control is not well understood. Synapses are thought to present large ATP demands; however, it is unclear how fuel availability and electrical activity impact synaptic ATP levels and how ATP availability controls synaptic function. We developed a quantitative genetically encoded optical reporter of presynaptic ATP, Syn-ATP, and find that electrical activity imposes large metabolic demands that are met via activity-driven control of both glycolysis and mitochondrial function. We discovered that the primary source of activity-driven metabolic demand is the synaptic vesicle cycle. In metabolically intact synapses, activity-driven ATP synthesis is well matched to the energetic needs of synaptic function, which, at steady state, results in ∼10(6) free ATPs per nerve terminal. Despite this large reservoir of ATP, we find that several key aspects of presynaptic function are severely impaired following even brief interruptions in activity-stimulated ATP synthesis.

Presynaptic and Postsynaptic Scaffolds

The development of methods to follow the dynamics of synaptic molecules in living neurons has radically altered our view of the synapse, from that of a generally static structure to that of a dynamic molecular assembly at steady state. This view holds not only for relatively labile synaptic components, such as synaptic vesicles, cytoskeletal elements, and neurotransmitter receptors, but also for the numerous synaptic molecules known as scaffolding molecules, a generic name for a diverse class of molecules that organize synaptic function in time and space. Recent studies reveal that these molecules, which confer a degree of stability to synaptic assemblies over time scales of hours and days, are themselves subject to significant dynamics. Furthermore, these dynamics are probably not without effect; wherever studied, these seem to be associated with spontaneous changes in scaffold molecule content, synaptic size, and possibly synaptic function. This review describes the dynamics exhibited by synaptic scaffold molecules, their typical time scales, and the potential implications to our understanding of synaptic function.

Synaptic vesicle recycling: steps and principles

Synaptic vesicle recycling is one of the best-studied cellular pathways. Many of the proteins involved are known, and their interactions are becoming increasingly clear. However, as for many other pathways, it is still difficult to understand synaptic vesicle recycling as a whole. While it is generally possible to point out how synaptic reactions take place, it is not always easy to understand what triggers or controls them. Also, it is often difficult to understand how the availability of the reaction partners is controlled: how the reaction partners manage to find each other in the right place, at the right time. I present here an overview of synaptic vesicle recycling, discussing the mechanisms that trigger different reactions, and those that ensure the availability of reaction partners. A central argument is that synaptic vesicles bind soluble cofactor proteins, with low affinity, and thus control their availability in the synapse, forming a buffer for cofactor proteins. The availability of cofactor proteins, in turn, regulates the different synaptic reactions. Similar mechanisms, in which one of the reaction partners buffers another, may apply to many other processes, from the biogenesis to the degradation of the synaptic vesicle.

AP180 couples protein retrieval to clathrin-mediated endocytosis of synaptic vesicles

How clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) retrieves vesicle proteins into newly formed synaptic vesicles (SVs) remains a major puzzle. Besides its roles in stimulating clathrin-coated vesicle formation and regulating SV size, the clathrin assembly protein AP180 has been identified as a key player in retrieving SV proteins. The mechanisms by which AP180 recruits SV proteins are not fully understood. Here, we show that following acute inactivation of AP180 in Drosophila, SV recycling is severely impaired at the larval neuromuscular synapse based on analyses of FM 1-43 uptake and synaptic ultrastructure. More dramatically, AP180 activity is important to maintain the integrity of SV protein complexes at the plasma membrane during endocytosis. These observations suggest that AP180 normally clusters SV proteins together during recycling. Consistent with this notion, SV protein composition and distribution are altered in AP180 mutant flies. Finally, AP180 co-immunoprecipitates with SV proteins, including the vesicular glutamate transporter and neuronal synaptobrevin. These results reveal a new mode by which AP180 couples protein retrieval to CME of SVs. AP180 is also genetically linked to Alzheimer's disease. Hence, the findings of this study may provide new mechanistic insight into the role of AP180 dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease.

SYN2 is an autism predisposing gene: loss-of-function mutations alter synaptic vesicle cycling and axon outgrowth

An increasing number of genes predisposing to autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) has been identified, many of which are implicated in synaptic function. This 'synaptic autism pathway' notably includes disruption of SYN1 that is associated with epilepsy, autism and abnormal behavior in both human and mice models. Synapsins constitute a multigene family of neuron-specific phosphoproteins (SYN1-3) present in the majority of synapses where they are implicated in the regulation of neurotransmitter release and synaptogenesis. Synapsins I and II, the major Syn isoforms in the adult brain, display partially overlapping functions and defects in both isoforms are associated with epilepsy and autistic-like behavior in mice. In this study, we show that nonsense (A94fs199X) and missense (Y236S and G464R) mutations in SYN2 are associated with ASD in humans. The phenotype is apparent in males. Female carriers of SYN2 mutations are unaffected, suggesting that SYN2 is another example of autosomal sex-limited expression in ASD. When expressed in SYN2  knockout neurons, wild-type human Syn II fully rescues the SYN2 knockout phenotype, whereas the nonsense mutant is not expressed and the missense mutants are virtually unable to modify the SYN2 knockout phenotype. These results identify for the first time SYN2  as a novel predisposing gene for ASD and strengthen the hypothesis that a disturbance of synaptic homeostasis underlies ASD.

Structural plasticity of GABAergic axons is regulated by network activity and GABAA receptor activation

Coordinated changes at excitatory and inhibitory synapses are essential for normal brain development and function. It is well established that excitatory neurons undergo structural changes, but our knowledge about inhibitory structural plasticity is rather scarce. Here we present a quantitative analysis of the dynamics of GABAergic boutons in the dendritic region of the hippocampal CA1 area using time-lapse two-photon imaging in organotypic hippocampal cultures from GAD65-GFP mice. We show that ~20% of inhibitory boutons are not stable. They are appearing, disappearing and reappearing at specific locations along the inhibitory axon and reflect immature or incomplete synapses. Furthermore, we observed that persistent boutons show large volume fluctuations over several hours, suggesting that presynaptic content of inhibitory synapses is not constant. Our data show that inhibitory boutons are highly dynamic structures and suggest that inhibitory axons are continuously probing potential locations for inhibitory synapse formation by redistributing presynaptic material along the axon. In addition, we found that neuronal activity affects the exploratory dynamics of inhibitory axons. Blocking network activity rapidly reduces the number of transient boutons, whereas enhancing activity reduces the number of persistent inhibitory boutons, possibly reflecting enhanced competition between boutons along the axon. The latter effect requires signaling through GABA_A receptors. We propose that activity-dependent regulation of bouton dynamics contributes to inhibitory synaptic plasticity.

Balance of calcineurin Aα and CDK5 activities sets release probability at nerve terminals

The control of neurotransmitter release at nerve terminals is of profound importance for neurological function and provides a powerful control system in neural networks. We show that the balance of enzymatic activities of the α isoform of the phosphatase calcineurin (CNAα) and the kinase cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5) has a dramatic influence over single action potential (AP)-driven exocytosis at nerve terminals. Acute or chronic loss of these enzymatic activities results in a sevenfold impact on single AP-driven exocytosis. We demonstrate that this control is mediated almost entirely through Cav2.2 (N-type) voltage-gated calcium channels as blocking these channels with a peptide toxin eliminates modulation by these enzymes. We found that a fraction of nerve terminals are kept in a presynaptically silent state with no measurable Ca(2+) influx driven by single AP stimuli attributable to the balance of CNAα and CDK5 activities because blockade of either CNAα or CDK5 activity changes the proportion of presynaptically silent nerve terminals. Thus, CNAα and CDK5 enzymatic activities are key determinants of release probability.

Rapid feedback regulation of synaptic efficacy during high-frequency activity at the Drosophila larval neuromuscular junction

High-frequency firing of neurons depresses transmitter release at many synapses. At the glutamatergic synapse of the Drosophila larval neuromuscular junction, we find that presynaptic depression is modulated by postsynaptic ionotropic glutamate receptor (iGluR) activity. Although basal release at low frequency was insensitive to postsynaptic iGluR activity, recovery from depression elicited by high-frequency presynaptic trains decreased with partial block of native iGluRs. Moreover, recovery from depression increased with optical activation of the light-gated mammalian iGluR6 (LiGluR) expressed postsynaptically. The enhancement of recovery from depression occurred within 2 min of optical activation of LiGluR and persisted for minutes after optical deactivation. This effect depended on cAMP-dependent presynaptic recruitment of vesicles from the reserve pool. Our findings reveal a unique dimension to postsynaptic iGluR activity: fast retrograde signaling that preserves transmission efficacy during high-frequency presynaptic firing.

Intrinsic variability in Pv, RRP size, Ca(2+) channel repertoire, and presynaptic potentiation in individual synaptic boutons

The strength of individual synaptic contacts is considered a key modulator of information flow across circuits. Presynaptically the strength can be parsed into two key parameters: the size of the readily releasable pool (RRP) and the probability that a vesicle in that pool will undergo exocytosis when an action potential fires (Pv). How these variables are controlled and the degree to which they vary across individual nerve terminals is crucial to understand synaptic plasticity within neural circuits. Here we report robust measurements of these parameters in rat hippocampal neurons and their variability across populations of individual synapses. We explore the diversity of presynaptic Ca²⁺ channel repertoires and evaluate their effect on synaptic strength at single boutons. Finally, we study the degree to which synapses can be differentially modified by a known potentiator of presynaptic function, forskolin. Our experiments revealed that both Pv and RRP spanned a large range, even for synapses made by the same axon, demonstrating that presynaptic efficacy is governed locally at the single synapse level. Synapses varied greatly in their dependence on N or P/Q type Ca²⁺ channels for neurotransmission, but there was no association between specific channel repertoires and synaptic efficacy. Increasing cAMP concentration using forskolin enhanced synaptic transmission in a Ca²⁺-independent manner that was inversely related with a synapse's initial Pv, and independent of its RRP size. We propose a simple model based on the relationship between Pv and calcium entry that can account for the variable potentiation of synapses based on initial probability of vesicle fusion.

A preferentially segregated recycling vesicle pool of limited size supports neurotransmission in native central synapses

At small central synapses, efficient turnover of vesicles is crucial for stimulus-driven transmission, but how the structure of this recycling pool relates to its functional role remains unclear. Here we characterize the organizational principles of functional vesicles at native hippocampal synapses with nanoscale resolution using fluorescent dye labeling and electron microscopy. We show that the recycling pool broadly scales with the magnitude of the total vesicle pool, but its average size is small (∼45 vesicles), highly variable, and regulated by CDK5/calcineurin activity. Spatial analysis demonstrates that recycling vesicles are preferentially arranged near the active zone and this segregation is abolished by actin stabilization, slowing the rate of activity-driven exocytosis. Our approach reveals a similarly biased recycling pool distribution at synapses in visual cortex activated by sensory stimulation in vivo. We suggest that in small native central synapses, efficient release of a limited pool of vesicles relies on their favored spatial positioning within the terminal.

Synaptic vesicle pools and dynamics

Synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitter at chemical synapses, thus initiating the flow of information in neural networks. To achieve this, vesicles undergo a dynamic cycle of fusion and retrieval to maintain the structural and functional integrity of the presynaptic terminals in which they reside. Moreover, compelling evidence indicates these vesicles differ in their availability for release and mobilization in response to stimuli, prompting classification into at least three different functional pools. Ongoing studies of the molecular and cellular bases for this heterogeneity attempt to link structure to physiology and clarify how regulation of vesicle pools influences synaptic strength and presynaptic plasticity. We discuss prevailing perspectives on vesicle pools, the role they play in shaping synaptic transmission, and the open questions that challenge current understanding.

Synapsin selectively controls the mobility of resting pool vesicles at hippocampal terminals

Presynaptic terminals are specialized sites for information transmission where vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and are locally recycled. Recent work has extended this classical view, with the observation that a subset of functional vesicles is dynamically shared between adjacent terminals by lateral axonal transport. Conceptually, such transport would be expected to disrupt vesicle retention around the active zone, yet terminals are characterized by a high-density vesicle cluster, suggesting that counteracting stabilizing mechanisms must operate against this tendency. The synapsins are a family of proteins that associate with synaptic vesicles and determine vesicle numbers at the terminal, but their specific function remains controversial. Here, using multiple quantitative fluorescence-based approaches and electron microscopy, we show that synapsin is instrumental for resisting vesicle dispersion and serves as a regulatory element for controlling lateral vesicle sharing between synapses. Deleting synapsin disrupts the organization of presynaptic vesicle clusters, making their boundaries hard to define. Concurrently, the fraction of vesicles amenable to transport is increased, and more vesicles are translocated to the axon. Importantly, in neurons from synapsin knock-out mice the resting and recycling pools are equally mobile. Synapsin, when present, specifically restricts the mobility of resting pool vesicles without affecting the division of vesicles between these pools. Specific expression of synapsin IIa, the sole isoform affecting synaptic depression, rescues the knock-out phenotype. Together, our results show that synapsin is pivotal for maintaining synaptic vesicle cluster integrity and that it contributes to the regulated sharing of vesicles between terminals.

Dendritic position is a major determinant of presynaptic strength

Different regulatory principles influence synaptic coupling between neurons, including positional principles. In dendrites of pyramidal neurons, postsynaptic sensitivity depends on synapse location, with distal synapses having the highest gain. In this paper, we investigate whether similar rules exist for presynaptic terminals in mixed networks of pyramidal and dentate gyrus (DG) neurons. Unexpectedly, distal synapses had the lowest staining intensities for vesicular proteins vGlut, vGAT, Synaptotagmin, and VAMP and for many nonvesicular proteins, including Bassoon, Munc18, and Syntaxin. Concomitantly, distal synapses displayed less vesicle release upon stimulation. This dependence of presynaptic strength on dendritic position persisted after chronically blocking action potential firing and postsynaptic receptors but was markedly reduced on DG dendrites compared with pyramidal dendrites. These data reveal a novel rule, independent of neuronal activity, which regulates presynaptic strength according to dendritic position, with the strongest terminals closest to the soma. This gradient is opposite to postsynaptic gradients observed in pyramidal dendrites, and different cell types apply this rule to a different extent.

Recruitment of resting vesicles into recycling pools supports NMDA receptor-dependent synaptic potentiation in cultured hippocampal neurons

Most presynaptic terminals in the central nervous system are characterized by two functionally distinct vesicle populations: a recycling pool, which supports action potential-driven neurotransmitter release via vesicle exocytosis, and a resting pool. The relative proportions of these two pools are highly variable between individual synapses, prompting speculation on their specific relationship, and on the possible functions of the resting pool. Using fluorescence imaging of FM-styryl dyes and synaptophysinI-pHluorin (sypHy) as well as correlative electron microscopy approaches, we show here that Hebbian plasticity-dependent changes in synaptic strength in rat hippocampal neurons can increase the recycling pool fraction at the expense of the resting pool in individual synaptic terminals. This recruitment process depends on NMDA-receptor activation, nitric oxide signalling and calcineurin and is accompanied by an increase in the probability of neurotransmitter release at individual terminals. Blockade of actin-mediated intersynaptic vesicle exchange does not prevent recycling pool expansion demonstrating that vesicle recruitment is intrasynaptic. We propose that the conversion of resting pool vesicles to the functionally recycling pool provides a rapid mechanism to implement long-lasting changes in presynaptic efficacy.

Use dependence of presynaptic tenacity

Recent studies indicate that synaptic vesicles (SVs) are continuously interchanged among nearby synapses at very significant rates. These dynamics and the lack of obvious barriers confining synaptic vesicles to specific synapses would seem to challenge the ability of synapses to maintain a constant amount of synaptic vesicles over prolonged time scales. Moreover, the extensive mobilization of synaptic vesicles associated with presynaptic activity might be expected to intensify this challenge. Here we examined the ability of individual presynaptic boutons of rat hippocampal neurons to maintain their synaptic vesicle content, and the degree to which this ability is affected by continuous activity. We found that the synaptic vesicle content of individual boutons belonging to the same axons gradually changed over several hours, and that these changes occurred independently of activity. Intermittent stimulation for 1 h accelerated rates of vesicle pool size change. Interestingly, however, following stimulation cessation, vesicle pool size change rates gradually converged with basal change rates. Over similar time scales, active zones (AZs) exhibited substantial remodeling; yet, unlike synaptic vesicles, AZ remodeling was not affected by the stimulation paradigms used here. These findings indicate that enhanced activity levels can increase synaptic vesicle redistribution among nearby synapses, but also highlight the presence of forces that act to restore particular set points in terms of SV contents, and support a role for active zones in preserving such set points. These findings also indicate, however, that neither AZ size nor SV content set points are particularly stable, questioning the long-term tenacity of presynaptic specializations.

Extrasynaptic vesicle recycling in mature hippocampal neurons

Fast neuronal signalling relies on highly regulated vesicle fusion and recycling at specialized presynaptic terminals. Recently, examples of non-classical neurotransmission have also been reported, where fusion of vesicles can occur at sites remote from conventional synapses. This has potentially broad biological implications, but the underlying mechanisms are not well established. Here we show that a complete vesicle recycling pathway can occur at discrete axonal sites in mature hippocampal neurons and that extrasynaptic fusion is a robust feature of native tissue. We demonstrate that laterally mobile vesicle clusters trafficking between synaptic terminals become transiently stabilized by evoked action potentials and undergo complete but delayed Ca(2+)-dependent fusion along axons. This fusion is associated with dynamic actin accumulation and, subsequently, vesicles can be locally recycled, re-acidified and re-used. Immunofluorescence and ultrastructural work demonstrates that extrasynaptic fusion sites can have apposed postsynaptic specializations, suggesting that mobile vesicle recycling may underlie highly dynamic neuron-neuron communication.

Concurrent imaging of synaptic vesicle recycling and calcium dynamics

Synaptic transmission involves the calcium dependent release of neurotransmitter from synaptic vesicles. Genetically encoded optical probes emitting different wavelengths of fluorescent light in response to neuronal activity offer a powerful approach to understand the spatial and temporal relationship of calcium dynamics to the release of neurotransmitter in defined neuronal populations. To simultaneously image synaptic vesicle recycling and changes in cytosolic calcium, we developed a red-shifted reporter of vesicle recycling based on a vesicular glutamate transporter, VGLUT1-mOrange2 (VGLUT1-mOr2), and a presynaptically localized green calcium indicator, synaptophysin-GCaMP3 (SyGCaMP3) with a large dynamic range. The fluorescence of VGLUT1-mOr2 is quenched by the low pH of synaptic vesicles. Exocytosis upon electrical stimulation exposes the luminal mOr2 to the neutral extracellular pH and relieves fluorescence quenching. Reacidification of the vesicle upon endocytosis again reduces fluorescence intensity. Changes in fluorescence intensity thus monitor synaptic vesicle exo- and endocytosis, as demonstrated previously for the green VGLUT1-pHluorin. To monitor changes in calcium, we fused the synaptic vesicle protein synaptophysin to the recently improved calcium indicator GCaMP3. SyGCaMP3 is targeted to presynaptic varicosities, and exhibits changes in fluorescence in response to electrical stimulation consistent with changes in calcium concentration. Using real time imaging of both reporters expressed in the same synapses, we determine the time course of changes in VGLUT1 recycling in relation to changes in presynaptic calcium concentration. Inhibition of P/Q- and N-type calcium channels reduces calcium levels, as well as the rate of synaptic vesicle exocytosis and the fraction of vesicles released.

v-SNARE composition distinguishes synaptic vesicle pools

Synaptic vesicles belong to two distinct pools, a recycling pool responsible for the evoked release of neurotransmitter and a resting pool unresponsive to stimulation. The uniform appearance of synaptic vesicles has suggested that differences in location or cytoskeletal association account for these differences in function. We now find that the v-SNARE tetanus toxin-insensitive vesicle-associated membrane protein (VAMP7) differs from other synaptic vesicle proteins in its distribution to the two pools, providing evidence that they differ in molecular composition. We also find that both resting and recycling pools undergo spontaneous release, and when activated by deletion of the longin domain, VAMP7 influences the properties of release. Further, the endocytosis that follows evoked and spontaneous release differs in mechanism, and specific sequences confer targeting to the different vesicle pools. The results suggest that different endocytic mechanisms generate synaptic vesicles with different proteins that can endow the vesicles with distinct properties.