Invisible Household Labor and Ramifications for Adjustment: Mothers as Captains of Households

Factors associated with very high-risk drinking in the Australian general population: How do men and women compare?

INTRODUCTION

Despite vulnerability to alcohol-related harms, women have historically been under-represented in alcohol research. This study examined the prevalence and characteristics of women who drink at very high-risk levels (11+ standard drinks monthly), factors associated with this consumption and comparisons with men.

METHODS

Secondary analyses of 2019 National Drug Strategy Household Survey data were undertaken. Significant differences by sex in the distribution of demographic and alcohol-related variables were explored using chi-squared and Mann-Whitney U tests. Binary logistic regression examined factors associated with very high-risk drinking.

RESULTS

Very high-risk drinking was reported by 10.4% of men and 3.1% of women. Compared to men, women were significantly younger with higher levels of psychological distress/mental health conditions, and were more likely to be unmarried. Both women and men engaged in a range of harm-minimisation strategies. Odds of very high-risk drinking were significantly higher for respondents who were male, younger, employed, lived in a regional/rural/remote area, psychologically distressed, smoked and used illicit drugs. Interactions with sex indicated that very high-risk drinking declined after the age of 24 for men compared to 44 for women. Being married reduced the likelihood of very high-risk drinking more greatly among women compared to men, while living in a major city reduced the likelihood among men (and not women).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Very high-risk drinking is not limited to Australian men, and the women who drink at these levels have distinct profiles and factors associated with consumption.

Unravelling the threads: understanding the interplay of Cultural values, female workforce engagement, human development index and suicide rates

PURPOSE

Suicide is a major public health problem across the world. Extensive research on the field shows that suicide is affected by several sociological, economic, and cultural risk factors. Over the last century, social changes have driven the reshaping of traditional gender roles, often in an uneven fashion, strongly depending on context. This study proposes updated findings on the impact that changes in traditional gender roles could have on suicide rates METHODS: It will do so by examining the correlation between female labor force participation (FLPR) and sex-specific suicide rates. Moreover, it will examine this association depending on human development (HDI) and Hofstede's individualism index. To do so, data from 2010 to 2019 from 47 countries is collected from the WHO, ILOSTAT and UN agencies' websites.

RESULTS

Analysis show a significant interaction between FLPR, HDI and individualism index scores on male suicide rates (p = 0.002). There is a negative association between FLPR and male suicide rates in relatively lower HDI countries, while in very high HDI countries an increase in FLPR is correlated with an increase in male suicide rates. Similar trends but no significant interaction is observed for female suicide rates.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that female participation is beneficial for male population as it reduces male suicide rates. However, this association appears to be context dependent. In countries where institutional adjustment is already established, and human development is very high, other factors might be of interest in examining the trends of suicide rates among men and women.

Practicable strategies parents can apply in their daily routine to successfully implement the 50/50-split-model of paid work, childcare, and housework: a qualitative content analysis

BACKGROUND

Many young couples are planning to share paid work, childcare, and housework equally between each other. But implementing such a 50/50-split-model is difficult and parents often return to traditional gender role distributions after the birth of a child. This return has potential negative effects on mental health, physical health, and relationship satisfaction. Therefore, this study aims to find practicable strategies on a behavioral-level which new parents can apply in their daily routine to successfully implement the 50/50-split-model if they wish to do so.

METHODS

This qualitative study, DREAMTALK, is part of the multi-method, prospective Dresden Study on Parenting, Work, and Mental Health (DREAM). For DREAMTALK, N = 25 parents implementing a 50/50-split-model were selected based on quantitative data regarding time use, which participants had provided in questionnaires. In DREAMTALK, problem-centered interviews were conducted with the selected sample at 17 months postpartum. Those were analyzed via qualitative content analysis, which is systematic, rule-guided, and based on the criteria of validity and reliability.

RESULTS

The qualitative content analysis revealed a catalog of 38 practicable strategies to manage daily routine, which can help parents to successfully implement a 50/50-split-model. Individual participants used 23 success strategies on average. Examples include having a regular coordination appointment with the other parent, planning foresightedly, flexibility, reducing cleaning, optimization of routes, or moderate split-shift parenting. Some of these strategies seem opposing, e.g., planning foresightedly, and at the same time, meeting unpredicted changes with flexibility. Those seemingly opposing strategies were well balanced by the participants, which was an additional strategy.

CONCLUSIONS

Parents can use the success strategies relatively independently of external circumstances. This behavioral perspective extends prior theories, which have focused on explaining unequal gender role distributions with external circumstances. A behavioral perspective can be a gateway to assist more parents to pioneer in implementing the 50/50-split-model, which might in turn lead to a healthier and more satisfied public population.

"I'll Try and Make Myself as Small as Possible": Women and Gender-Diverse People's Safety Work on Public Transport

Public transport is a known hotspot for sexual violence and harassment. Through 41 interviews with women and gender-diverse people who have experienced sexual violence and harassment on public transport, we found that women and gender-diverse people engage in extensive "safety work," such as changing their behavior, strategizing, and planning. Safety work takes considerable time and effort, often leaving participants feeling stressed. However, participants advocated for changes to public transport to reduce the work they do to stay safe. We argue that significant changes, including primary prevention of gender-based violence, are needed to reduce their safety work.

The Role of Feminism and Gender in Endorsement of Hookup Culture among Emerging Adults

Hookup culture has transformed the sexual behavior of emerging adults. Feminism, a movement that has advocated for liberating women from sexual repression, may be associated with hookup endorsement attitudes. This study explores the associations among multiple dimensions of feminism, gender, and hookup culture endorsement. Participants included 318 emerging adults (46% women; Mage = 22.2 years; 51% White, 27% Asian, 5% Hispanic/Latinx, 9% Black, 1% Middle Eastern, 1% American Indian, 6% Multiracial) from five Anglophone countries (62% U.S., 23% United Kingdom, 9% Canada, 5% Australia, 1% New Zealand), who completed the Feminist Beliefs and Behavior Scale and Endorsement of Hookup Culture Index via an anonymous, online survey. Participants were categorized according to their feminist identity label (feminist, non-feminist) and feminist belief system (hold feminist beliefs, hold non-feminist beliefs). A series of ANCOVAs was conducted, revealing that women who identified as feminist and/or held feminist beliefs reported significantly higher endorsement of hookup culture compared to non-feminist women with non-feminist beliefs. Neither dimension of feminism predicted hookup culture endorsement in men. When comparing feminist-identifying women and men, the gender disparity in hookup culture endorsement was eliminated. Together, these findings highlight how social movements, such as feminism, may be associated with young women's attitudes towards hookups, and may ultimately shape their sexual experiences.

Mental health impacts of climate change and extreme weather events on mothers

Background: The perinatal period is a time of increased vulnerability for perinatal mood and anxiety disorders (PMADs). Emotional trauma is a risk factor for PMAD development and is common among survivors of extreme weather events (EWEs), which are becoming more frequent and intense as the climate crisis progresses. EWE-related stress and anxiety have not been extensively studied in the perinatal population. However, the limited available data suggest a negative impact of EWE exposure on perinatal mental health, warranting further investigation and investment.Objective: To address this knowledge gap, we interviewed new Australian mothers to understand how EWEs affect the mental health of the perinatal population.Method: Australian mothers (18 years of age or older) with a baby under 12 months of age were recruited to participate in a single virtual focus group session (seven group sessions were run in total) and complete an anonymous survey. Participants were asked questions regarding their concerns about extreme weather and its impact, as well as their general maternal functioning. Maternal functioning, depression, and climate distress were measured via the survey.Results: The study sample comprised 31 Australian mothers (Mage = 31.74, SD = 4.86), predominantly located in Queensland. Findings from the focus groups suggested six key themes; however, of focus to this study are three themes related to maternal mental health: health and well-being, helplessness and avoidant coping, and resilience and adaptation. Predominant subthemes focused on trauma resulting from EWE exposure, economic and heat concerns, social isolation, hopelessness about the future, and feelings of resilience.Conclusions: The evidence linking adverse perinatal mental health outcomes with climate change and EWEs highlights the urgent need for interventions in this context to protect perinatal mental health and well-being. By acknowledging the traumatic impact of these experiences on mothers, this study supports advocacy for policies that specifically address this issue.

Experienced Love: An Empirical Account

This article presents new evidence on the prevalence, dynamics, and hedonic correlates of experienced love from data describing the emotion, well-being, and time use of a diverse sample of 3,867 U.S. adults every half hour for 10 days (N = 1.12 million) supplemented by a hedonic snapshot of an additional 7,255 adults. The findings allude to the seemingly functional and adaptive nature of love and to similarities across binary gender-men and women reported comparable degrees of (passionate) partner love overall, elevated partner love after prolonged same-day separations, substantially elevated well-being in love's presence, and reduced (but not extinguished) partner love in mature marital cohorts. The gender differences that were found-women reported more child love than men, and men exhibited a less pronounced reduction in partner love across cohorts-are also consistent with functional accounts of love that recognize the varying role of men and women in the formation and sustenance of relationships.

Postnatal depressive symptoms mediate the relation between prenatal role overload and responsiveness among first-time mothers

BACKGROUND

This study examined the association between prenatal role overload and maternal responsiveness, with postnatal depressive symptoms as a mediator.

METHODS

Participants were 127 first-time mothers in Hong Kong (M = 32.8, SD = 4.0). Participants completed data collection for self-report on prenatal role overload (Time 1) in the third trimester of pregnancy, postnatal depressive symptoms (Time 2) at 4-month postpartum and maternal responsiveness (Time 3) at 9-month postpartum. The hypothesised mediation model was tested with the Hayes PROCESS macro (model 4).

RESULTS

Time 1 prenatal role overload was not directly predictive of later responsiveness (B = -0.06, p = .270). However, the indirect effect of Time 2 postnatal depressive symptoms in the association between Time 1 prenatal role overload and Time 3 responsiveness was significant (unstandardised effect = -0.03, 95% Bootstrapping CI = [-0.081, -0.001]; standardised effect = -0.06, 95% Bootstrapping CI = [-0.152, -0.002]).

CONCLUSION

Findings highlighted that more attention is required to the support provided to first-time expectant mothers to prevent role overload, and that intervention for postnatal depressive symptoms may focus on role overload. The findings also highlighted that postnatal depressive symptoms could be a promising way to increase maternal responsiveness.

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on U.S. Women's Mental Health

Background: Women are more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and anxiety with rates increasing since the COVID-19 pandemic. This study sought to understand how women's intersecting identities, personal strengths, and COVID-19-related stressors were associated with their anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms early in the pandemic. Methods: During May-June 2020, American women (N = 398) recruited via MTurk completed an online questionnaire assessing mental health (PTSD, anxiety, and depression), demographic characteristics, personal strengths (coping, hope, social support), and experiences with COVID-19-specific stressors. Results: Women who had a child younger than 18 years of age, lived in rural or urban areas (compared with suburban), and identified as sexual minority reported increased levels of PTSD, depression, and anxiety symptoms. Social support and hope (Agency) were associated with fewer mental health symptoms. Engagement in maladaptive coping and greater perception of COVID-19 threat and perceived stress was associated with more PTSD, depression, and anxiety symptoms. COVID-19-related illness events and difficulty accessing living essentials were associated with increased anxiety symptoms. COVID-19-related disruption to living and income were associated with increased PTSD symptoms. Loneliness was associated with increased anxiety and depression symptoms. Conclusions: Results of this study can inform prevention and intervention efforts to address depression and anxiety among women with intersecting identities during times of stress. Specifically, supporting the development of women's resilience and adaptive coping and intervening to address maladaptive coping strategies, such as drinking, provide paths to supporting women's mental health.

Development and validation of a new questionnaire to assess perceptions regarding DWELL: Design for WELLness

Designing home environments for health and wellness is a crucial strategy for disease prevention and health promotion. Yet, there is not a tool to evaluate perceptions regarding home design for health and wellness. This study aimed to develop and validate a new instrument to measure people's perceptions regarding the concept of DWELL: Design for WELLness in the home environment. We developed a short 5-item online questionnaire to detect changes in knowledge, awareness, engagement and self-efficacy regarding DWELL. The instrument was validated in an online study. Of the 613 mothers who answered the questionnaire initially, 397 answered the questionnaire a second time. Factor analysis and Cronbach's alpha indicated that all five DWELL questions load into one single factor (the model explained 61.84% of total variance), and measure a reliable scale of the same construct, with high levels of internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.85) at both first and second administrations. Spearman correlations between DWELL first and second administrations of the questionnaire indicated moderate-to-high test-retest reliability (0.55-0.70, p < 0.001). DWELL was found to be a valid tool which fills a gap in the public health literature. This measure serves as a free and convenient online instrument to gain insights regarding the effect of modifying environments for disease prevention and health promotion. The tool may be used to assess perceptions in the conditions leading wellness promotion in the home.

Who's Remembering to Buy the Eggs? The Meaning, Measurement, and Implications of Invisible Family Load

Although much is known of the observable physical tasks associated with household management and child rearing, there is scant understanding of the less visible tasks that are just as critical. Grounding our research in the extant literature, the broader lay discussion, as well as our own qualitative research, we define, conceptualize, and operationalize this construct, which we label as "invisible family load." Using a mixed method, five-study approach, we offer a comprehensive, multidimensional definition and provide a nine-item, empirically validated scale to measure its component parts-managerial, cognitive, and emotional family load. In addition, we investigate gender differences and find, as expected, that women report higher levels of each dimension. We also examine the implications of invisible family load for employee health, well-being, and job attitudes, as well as family-to-work spillover. Although we substantiated some significant negative consequences, contrary to the popular view that consequences of invisible family load are uniformly negative, our results show some potential benefits. Even after accounting for conscientiousness and neuroticism, managerial family load related to greater family-work enrichment, and cognitive family load related to greater family satisfaction and job performance. Yet, emotional family load had uniformly negative potential consequences including greater family-to-work conflict, sleep problems, family and job exhaustion, and lower life and family satisfaction. Our research sets the stage for scholars to forge a path forward to enhance understanding of this phenomenon and its implications for individuals, their families, and the organizations for which they work.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10869-023-09887-7.

On the Stress of Being a Woman: The synergistic contribution of sex as a biological variable and gender as a psychosocial one to risk of stress-related disorders

Stress-related disorders (SRD) disproportionately affect women. Cortisol blunting, a failure to demonstrate a typical rise and fall of cortisol in response to stress, is associated with SRDs and has been found to be more pronounced among women. Cortisol blunting relates to both sex as a biological variable (SABV; e.g., estrogens and their fluctuations, impact on neural circuits) and gender as a psychosocial variable (GAPSV; e.g., discrimination, harassment, gender roles). I suggest a theoretical model linking experience, sex- and gender-related factors, and neuroendocrine substrates of SRD to the heightened risk among women. The model thus bridges multiple gaps in the literature to create a synergistic conceptual framework with which to understand the stress of being a woman. Utilizing such a framework in research may allow identifying targeted, sex-and gender-dependent risk factors, informing psychological treatment, medical advice, educational and community programming, and policy. DATA AVAILABILITY: All references are cited as required, no other data is reported.

Fairer Sex: The Role of Relationship Equity in Female Sexual Desire

Previous investigations into Female Sexual Desire (FSD) have been focused on women's biological, cognitive, and emotional processes, despite evidence that FSD is also responsive to relational contexts. Past research consistently demonstrates a general association between relationship satisfaction and FSD. There remains, however, a need to expound this connection. In response, this study explored the role of relationship equity in relationship satisfaction and FSD. For this cross-sectional study, 299 Australian women aged 18 to 39 years responded to an online questionnaire measuring relationship factors and dimensions of sexual desire. Two mediation models were tested to examine how relationship equity was associated with solitary and dyadic sexual desire, via a connection with relationship satisfaction. As expected, equality in relationships predicted relationship satisfaction, which, subsequently, was related to higher levels of dyadic sexual desire. No significant mediation was found for solitary desire, indicating that relationship factors may not play a critical role in this domain. This result also demonstrates a distinct divergence between the two domains of desire that requires further examination. These results solidify the notion of FSD as a multifaceted construct and present meaningful implications for theory, research, and clinical practice.

List-keepers and other carrier bag stories: Academic mothers' (in)visible labor during the COVID-19 pandemic

Beginning in 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted familiar rhythms of work and life when academic women from the United States sheltered-in-place in their homes. The pandemic brought forth challenges which accentuated that caregiving with little or no support disproportionately affected mothers' abilities to navigate their new lives inside the home, where work and caregiving abruptly collided. This article takes on the (in)visible labor of academic mothers during this time-the labor mothers saw and viscerally experienced, yet that which was often unseen/unexperienced by others. Using Ursula K. Le Guin's Carrier Bag Theory as a conceptual framework, the authors engage with interviews of 54 academic mothers through a feminist-narrative lens. They craft stories of carrying (in)visible labor, isolation, simultaneity, and list-keeping as they navigate the mundaneness of everyday pandemic home/work/life. Through unrelenting responsibilities and expectations, they each find ways to carry it all, as they carry on.

Gendered Mental Labor: A Systematic Literature Review on the Cognitive Dimension of Unpaid Work Within the Household and Childcare

With this literature review, we provide a systematic overview on and working definition of mental labor in the context of unpaid work-an inherent cognitive component of daily routines primarily related to domestic or childcare tasks. Our methodology followed PRISMA guidelines, and 31 full-text articles were included. Articles were peer-reviewed and published in social science, sociological, and psychological journals. The studies applied quantitative and qualitative methodological approaches including, interviews, online surveys, observations of family routines, time estimates, and experiments. The samples covered a wide age range, consisting mostly of U.S. American or European middle-class women and men (married or in a relationship). Predominantly, the articles show that women perform the larger proportion of mental labor, especially when it comes to childcare and parenting decisions. Further, women experience more related negative consequences, such as stress, lower life and relationship satisfaction, and negative impact on their careers. We offer an integrative theoretical perspective to explain the gendered distribution of mental labor and cognitive load. We consider theoretical and practical implications of these findings for reducing gender inequality in mental labor in the context of unpaid work within the household and childcare.

Economic distress and perceptions of sexual intimacy in remarriage

Introduction

Economic distress and the relationship stability of remarried couples has been subject to some exploration, but less emphasis has been placed on how economic distress among remarried couples impacts other relationship domains, particularly sexual intimacy.

Methods

Through the lens of multidimensional family development theory (MFDT), this study utilizes longitudinal data over a three-year period to examine the links between economic distress, couple engagement, relationship satisfaction, and perceptions of sexual intimacy among remarried couples (n = 1,161 couples; 97% White).

Results

Through a dyadic structural equation model, results showed that wives' report of economic distress was directly related to their self-rejection of a partner's sexual advances. Findings also revealed gender differences in how both relationship satisfaction and couple engagement influenced one to accept or reject their partner's sexual advances, with couple engagement acting as a significant predictor for wives. Relationship satisfaction was also found to explain (i.e., mediate) the relation between economic distress and sexual intimacy, but only for husbands.

Discussion

Implications for further research and interventions designed to strengthen the relationships of remarried couples dealing with economic distress and intimacy issues are offered.

When work-family guilt becomes a women's issue: Internalized gender stereotypes predict high guilt in working mothers but low guilt in working fathers

Gender stereotypes prescribe mothers, but not fathers, to prioritize their family over their work. Therefore, internalization of gender stereotypes may predict higher guilt among mothers than fathers in situations in which they prioritize their work over their family. Study 1 (135 mothers and 116 fathers) indeed revealed that the stronger fathers' implicit gender stereotypes (measured with a gender-career implicit association task) the less guilt fathers reported in a fictitious work-interfering-with-family situation. Although mothers on average reported higher guilt than fathers, this effect was not moderated by their implicit gender stereotypes. Study 2 (daily diary study among 105 mothers), however, did reveal evidence for the moderating effect of implicit gender stereotypes on working mothers' guilt. The stronger mothers' implicit gender stereotypes the more work-family conflict and guilt they reported on days that they worked long hours. These results show that implicit gender stereotypes shape how parents feel about their work-family choices.

Mothering Ideology: A Qualitative Exploration of Mothers' Perceptions of Navigating Motherhood Pressures and Partner Relationships

Good mother ideology refers to beliefs that women are only 'good' mothers if they adhere to the tenets of dominant parenting discourse, such as intensive mothering ideology, which prioritizes children's needs and child-raising above all else. Undergirded by this ideology, mothers' attempts to navigate the transition to motherhood are fraught with pressures, and the transition is associated with negative health outcomes for mothers and children; yet existing research gives little attention to the quality or dynamics of the partner relationship as part of this transition. The current study examined motherhood pressure and the impact on partner relationships through individual, semi-structured interviews with 19 mothers living in Australia who were 18 years or older in a heterosexual relationship with at least one child under the age of five. Thematic analysis revealed four key themes: discourses on motherhood: criticisms of mothers and internalised guilt; transformation of identity; entrenchment of gender roles through childrearing; and positive relationship dynamics: supportive fathers and challenging gender roles. This study contributes to the larger body of literature highlighting the complexity of dominant mothering ideology and its entanglement with and impact on partner relationships. Further, this study includes mothers' perceptions of how they navigate these pressures within the relationship with their partner and the family unit. These findings have implications for programs to support mothers and other caregivers, as well as challenge unrealistic standards for motherhood.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11199-022-01345-7.

Division of Labour and Parental Mental Health and Relationship Well-Being during COVID-19 Pandemic-Mandated Homeschooling

While the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the way parents partition tasks between one another, it is not clear how these division of labour arrangements affect well-being. Pre-pandemic research offers two hypotheses: economic theory argues optimal outcomes result from partners specialising in different tasks, whereas psychological theory argues for a more equitable division of labour. The question of which approach optimizes well-being is more pressing in recent times, with COVID-19 school closures leaving many couples with the burden of homeschooling. It is unknown whether specialisation or equity confer more benefits for mandated homeschoolers, relative to non-homeschoolers or voluntary homeschoolers. Couples (n = 962) with children in grades 1-5 completed measures of workload division and parental well-being. A linear mixed modelling in the total sample revealed that specialisation, but not equity, promoted increased parental emotional and relationship well-being. These relations were moderated by schooling status: voluntary homeschoolers' well-being benefitted from specialisation, whereas mandated homeschoolers' well-being did not benefit from either strategy; non-homeschoolers well-being benefitted from both strategies. Across the mixed-gender couples, mothers' and fathers' well-being both benefitted from specialisation; equity was only beneficial for mothers' well-being. Overall, couples might be advised to adopt highly equitable and specialised arrangements to promote both parents' well-being.

Gendered Impact of Caregiving Responsibilities on Tenure Track Faculty Parents’ Professional Lives

Navigating a career while raising a family can be challenging, especially for women in academia. In this study, we examine the ways in which professional life interruptions due to child caregiving (e.g., opportunities not offered, professional travel curtailed) affect pre- and post-tenure faculty members’ career satisfaction and retention. We also examine whether sharing caregiving responsibilities with a partner affected faculty members’ (particularly women’s) career outcomes. In a sample of 753 tenure track faculty parents employed at a large research-intensive university, results showed that as the number of professional life interruptions due to caregiving increased, faculty members experienced less career satisfaction and greater desire to leave their job. Pre-tenure women’s, but not pre-tenure men’s, career satisfaction and intention to stay were negatively affected when they experienced at least one professional life interference. Pre-tenure men’s desire to stay in their job and career satisfaction remained high, regardless of the number of professional life interferences they experienced. Sharing parenting responsibilities with a partner did not buffer the demands of caregiving on pre-tenure women’s career outcomes. Our work highlights the need to consider the varied ways in which caregiving affects faculty members’ careers, beyond markers such as publications, and how institutions can support early career stage women with family-friendly practices.

Financial inclusion and education: An empirical study of financial inclusion in the face of the pandemic emergency due to Covid-19 in Latin America and the Caribbean

Financial inclusion and education contribute to a country's development and economic growth. However, despite the significant efforts being made to increase access to financial products for women, a high percentage still do not have access to and effective use of formal financial services in the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. This study analyzes financial inclusion (based on gender equality) in the countries studied using a pooled-panel ordinary least squares econometric technique. Furthermore, the impact of interactions between the level of study, use of technology, academic degree during the Covid-19 restrictions, number of credit borrowers, and number of borrowers with the interaction of the restrictions during the health emergency was evaluated employing the Gini coefficient and human development index (HDI). This study confirms that Latin America and the Caribbean countries can increase financial inclusion by changing their social aspects based on gender equality to ease using technology and access to credit. The results of this study are helpful for policy-makers in formulating and implementing policies that lead to action plans that reverse an exclusionary financial system, promote financial education, and empower women.

Intensive mothering and the perpetuation of gender inequality: Evidence from a mixed methods research

Intensive mothering is a cultural model of appropriate childrearing according to which mothers should unselfishly make a tremendous investment in their child. Using a mixed methodology, we examined the relevance of this ideology to understand the persistence of gender inequality. A content analysis of the most popular French mommy blogs indicates that this ideology remains commonplace, and has even incorporated contemporary concerns regarding sustainable development. Besides the expected themes of the sacredness of the child, the primary responsibility of the mother, and the use of intensive methods for all aspects of childrearing, the analysis of blog posts highlights new themes, including the sacredness of home, need for balance, and the praise of fathers. Furthermore, mommy blogs, as public online diaries involving everyday experience, prompt mothers to confess their failure to comply with intensive mothering demands and, at the same time, to reaffirm their commitment to its principles. Social influence is evidenced by the comments in response to the posts, which demonstrate polarization toward intensive mothering among the readers. A survey study further demonstrates that this ideology is positively related to a series of gender hierarchy-enhancing beliefs and attitudes. As a whole, the present research indicates that intensive mothering should be considered a system justifying ideology, while mommy blogs provide a platform for its diffusion and strengthening.

Family responses to resource scarcity

Resource scarcity, manifested through limited time, money or space, is a prevalent aspect of family life. Drawing on depth interviews with 30 families from diverse demographic backgrounds, this study develops a framework to demonstrate how families respond to resource scarcity. Our research examines how multi-dimensional, concurrent and/or consecutive life events, such as job changes, house moves, or childbirth, create a mismatch between available and required resources to trigger situational resource scarcity. We identify different patterns of adjustments in consumption and resource investment over time, based on families' chronic resources and reliance on support networks. Notably, the greater flexibility afforded by multiple family members is constrained by collective goals, domains of control, tensions and negotiations.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11747-022-00882-7.

The mental health and wellbeing of spouses, partners and children of emergency responders: A systematic review

Emergency responders (ERs), often termed First Responders, such as police, fire and paramedic roles are exposed to occupational stressors including high workload, and exposure to trauma from critical incidents, both of which can affect their mental health and wellbeing. Little is known about the impact of the ER occupation on the mental health and wellbeing of their families. The aim of the current study was to investigate what mental health and wellbeing outcomes and experiences have been researched internationally in ER families, and to examine the prevalence and associated risk and protective factors of these outcomes. We conducted a systematic review in accordance with an a priori PROSPERO approved protocol (PROSPERO 2019 CRD42019134974). Forty-three studies were identified for inclusion. The majority of studies used a quantitative, cross-sectional design and were conducted in the United States; just over half assessed police/law enforcement families. Themes of topics investigated included: 1) Spousal/partner mental health and wellbeing; 2) Couple relationships; 3) Child mental health and wellbeing; 4) Family support and coping strategies; and 5) Positive outcomes. The review identified limited evidence regarding the prevalence of mental health and wellbeing outcomes. Family experiences and risk factors described were ER work-stress spillover negatively impacting spousal/partner wellbeing, couple relationships, and domestic violence. Traumatic exposure risk factors included concerns family had for the safety of their ER partner, the negative impact of an ER partners’ mental health problem on the couples’ communication and on family mental health outcomes. Protective factors included social support; however, a lack of organisational support for families was reported in some studies. Study limitations and future research needs are discussed. Progressing this area of research is important to improve knowledge of baseline needs of ER families to be able to target interventions, improve public health, and support ER’s operational effectiveness.

Teaching College in the Time of COVID-19: Gender and Race Differences in Faculty Emotional Labor

The COVID-19 pandemic placed new teaching demands upon faculty that may have exacerbated existing race and gender disparities in the amount of emotional labor they perform. The present study surveyed 182 full-time tenured and tenure-track faculty from three small private liberal arts colleges to examine the effect of social and professional statuses on emotional labor (i.e., managing the expression of emotions to meet job requirements) during the emergency switch to remote instruction in spring 2020. Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression revealed that white cisgender men performed less emotional labor than Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) cisgender men, BIPOC cisgender women, and white cisgender women and gender non-conforming (GNC) faculty. Student demands for special favors fully mediated the relationship between intersectional race and gender identity and self-directed emotional labor and partially mediated its relationship with student-directed emotional labor. We conclude that the status shield afforded white cisgender men by their race and gender protected them from student demands that would have required them to engage in as much emotional labor as faculty with other intersectional race and gender identities during the pandemic. We discuss considering differences in emotional labor when making personnel decisions.

Exploring American Parents' Lived Experiences During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Ramifications for Well-Being

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to document the direct impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on parents and families in the United States.

METHODS

Parents' experiences during the pandemic were examined using an online survey (N = 564) collected during May and June 2020.

RESULTS

Parents reported experiencing a high frequency of COVID-19-related events (e.g., job loss and health concerns) and impact on their lives. Parents' experiences with COVID-19, as well as self-reported perceived increase in home labor, experiences with assisting children with remote schooling, and work-life conflict were all significantly associated with higher levels of parental role overload. COVID-19-related events and impact, as well as parental role overload, significantly predicted parents' anxiety and depression, even after controlling for demographic factors.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest the importance of providing support for parents and families through direct services and public policy changes.

Gendered Division of Digital Labor in Parenting: A Qualitative Study in Urban China

The gendered division of domestic labor is a key topic in gender and family studies. While there has been extensive discussion of time use and the division of physical, emotional, and mental labor in housework and childcare within couples, the division of digital labor in the family has not been systematically examined. Drawing on qualitative data obtained from 147 parents in 84 urban Chinese families, this study reveals prominent gender differences in digital labor in parenting by comparing urban Chinese mothers' and fathers' use of digital technology and media in searching for parenting information, maintaining online communication with teachers, and shopping online and using online education services for their children. The findings demonstrate an unequal division of digital labor in urban Chinese families, in which mothers shoulder most of the digital labor in parenting. This study enriches the feminist literature by demonstrating the mutual construction of gender and digital technology in the domestic sphere and highlighting a new form of domestic labor divided between husbands and wives in the digital age. This study challenges liberating and progressive myths surrounding digital technology and calls for academic reflection and public attention on its constraining and exploitative implications for women.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11199-021-01267-w.

Gender Differences in the Work and Home Spheres for Teachers, and Longitudinal Associations with Depressive Symptoms in a Swedish Cohort

The high level of stress among teachers is a frequently reported problem globally but less is known about how demands and resources among teachers affect depressive symptoms, and to what extent gender differences in these conditions can explain potential differences in depressive symptoms. The present study investigated gender differences in teachers’ self-reported depressive symptoms, and differences in their demands and resources in both work and home spheres. Associations between demands and resources, respectively, and depressive symptoms as well as gender differences in these associations were examined. Results from univariate and parallel growth modelling (N = 1,022), using data from six time points (2008 to 2018), found higher levels of depressive symptoms, higher emotional and quantitative work demands, and more time doing unpaid work among female teachers, whereas male teachers reported more time on leisure activities. Emotional and quantitative work demands were associated with depressive symptoms at baseline, and these associations also developed in parallel over time. Leisure time had a negative association with depressive symptoms at baseline. There were no gender differences in the strength of these associations. Findings suggest that gender differences in teachers’ depressive symptoms could be attributable to women’s greater demands in the work sphere and fewer resources in the home sphere than men as opposed to their being more vulnerable to workplace stressors.

Rent Burden and Depression Among Mothers: an Analysis of Primary Caregiver Outcomes

Using national longitudinal survey data from the Fragile Families & Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS), this study builds on existing knowledge about housing insecurity, female caregivers, and well-being. The study analyzed the relationship between housing cost burdens (HCB) and depression among a sample (N = 399) of predominantly (67.6%) Black non-Hispanic mothers and other female primary caregivers. A generalized estimating equation (GEE) model yielded results that indicate housing cost burden among mothers and other female primary caregivers has a statistically significant association with meeting symptoms of depression and liberal criteria for depression as measured by the CIDI-SF survey instrument. This study contributes to the knowledge base of health outcomes related to housing cost burden by providing a unique analysis of the association of depression and housing cost burden at an unprecedented scale by using data from several consecutive waves of survey responses of a large, multi-city, longitudinal study. The findings hold implications that may inform future policy and research concerning the affordable housing crisis, which disproportionately affects mothers and other female heads of household. Considering the prevalence of housing cost burden in the USA and the disproportionate indications of depression found among housing burdened mothers/female caregivers, the findings of this study may hold implications for housing and health policies that address U.S. communities as diverse as the wide range of communities from which the FFCWS respondents were drawn.

Women's Experiences Navigating Paid Work and Caregiving During the COVID-19 Pandemic

During the COVID-19 pandemic, many women lost their jobs or chose to leave the workforce because of increased caregiving demands. Of women who remained employed, many faced increased complexity in negotiating their roles as employees and caregivers. On the basis of existing theory and research on the impact of women's caregiving responsibilities on their careers, we developed a model of the relationships among women's caregiving hours for children and adults, work-family and family-work conflict, perceived social support, and career satisfaction during the pandemic. We collected data from 475 university staff members and tested our model using a path analysis. Results suggested that caregiving hours for children directly influenced work-family and family-work conflict and that social support partially mediated the relationship between family-work conflict and career satisfaction. We discuss how counselors might best work with women who are navigating multiple life roles during a period of family, community, and global challenges.

On-Call Duties: The Perceived Impact on Veterinarians' Job Satisfaction, Well-Being and Personal Relationships

Objective: To assess the impact of on-call duties on veterinarians' job satisfaction, well-being and personal relationships.

Design: Cross-sectional survey.

Sample: The sample was obtained from Veterinary Information Network (VIN) members in private practice within the United States.

Procedures: A link to an anonymous online survey was distributed via an email invitation to all Veterinary Information Network (VIN) members with access from August 15, 2017 to October 21, 2017.

Results: A total of 1,945 responses were recorded. The majority of those who reported having on-call duties were female associates. Composite scales were created to assess the impact of on-call shifts on job satisfaction and well-being. Multiple linear regression was conducted and found that gender (p = 0.0311), associate status (p < 0.0001), and age (p = 0.0293) were all significantly associated with on-call related job satisfaction. Additionally, multiple linear regression found that gender (p = 0.0039), associate status (p < 0.0057), and age (p < 0.0001) were all significantly associated with on-call related well-being. On-call shifts were reported by many to have a negative impact on job satisfaction and well-being; this was especially pronounced for female associates. Females had on-call related job satisfaction scores that were, on average, 1.27 points lower than that of males (lower scores equates to lower job satisfaction). Further, females' average on-call related well-being scores were 1.15 points higher than that of males (lower scores equates to higher well-being).

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: This study suggests that on-call shifts have a negative impact on veterinarian job satisfaction, well-being and personal relationships. The negative impact on job satisfaction and well-being is greatest for female associates. Veterinary medicine has been identified as a stressful occupation that can lead to psychological distress. It is therefore important to critically assess current practices that appear to increase stress and reduce emotional well-being. For this reason, it is suggested that veterinary hospitals explore alternative options to traditional on-call shifts.

Pathways from maternal depressive symptoms to children's academic performance in adolescence: A 13-year prospective-longitudinal study

The pathways through which exposure to maternal depressive symptoms in early childhood are linked to academic performance during adolescence are poorly understood. This study tested pathways from maternal depressive symptoms (age 2–5) to adolescent academic performance (age 15) through cumulative parenting risk (age 7) and subsequent child functioning (age 10), using multi‐informant data from a prospective longitudinal community study spanning 13 years (N = 389, 47% male, 68% White). Structural equation models testing indirect effects revealed small associations between maternal depressive symptoms and increased cumulative parenting risk and poorer child functioning, and, via these pathways, with poorer academic performance. Thus, childhood exposure to maternal depressive symptoms may be associated with pathways of risk that could limit children's educational opportunities.

Dr. Mease et al reply

We thank Dr. Maguire et al¹ for their interest in and appreciation of our study from the Corrona Psoriatic Arthritis/ Spondyloarthritis Registry comparing patient characteristics and disease burden between men and women with axial spondyloarthritis (axSpA).² Dr. Maguire and colleagues raised a number of interesting questions around the causal relationship between the higher prevalence of depression and decreased work productivity we observed in women in our study.

Investigating Posttraumatic Growth in Midlife Using an Intensive Longitudinal Research Design: Posttraumatic Growth Is Not as Prevalent as Previously Considered

The notion that adversity leads to enduring improvements in psychological functioning carries promise given the diverse adversities individuals confront over their life course. However, research on posttraumatic growth (PTG) has relied on cross-sectional research designs, which severely limit the ability to discern whether growth transpires following adversity. Our goal was to examine whether PTG is possible across a diverse array of outcomes and identify factors that promote PTG. We analyzed data from a longitudinal, prospective study that assessed midlife participants monthly for a period of 2 years. Over the study period, 276 participants experienced a major life stressor, and multiphase multilevel models were used to examine whether PTG transpired in life satisfaction, gratitude, compassion, generativity, meaning-making, and religiosity/spirituality. On average, life satisfaction, generativity, and meaning-making declined following adversity; substantial between-person differences were observed across all outcomes. Our multidimensional approach revealed that, on average, individuals experienced PTG in less than one outcome. More anticipated support and less interpersonal strain were consistently associated with positive functioning in each outcome. Our discussion focuses on how multidimensional approaches to studying PTG promise to disentangle which outcomes potentially grow following adversity and illuminate best research practices for examining PTG, laying the groundwork for future research.

"She's the Center of My Life, the One That Keeps My Heart Open": Roles and Expectations of Native American Women

Historically, Native American (NA) mothers have proven essential to the survival of their families and communities, yet scant research has examined their roles today. Current gender roles in NA communities are influenced by historical oppression (both historic and contemporary forms) that acted to reverse matrilineal gender norms in favor of patriarchy. The present study sought to explore norms and expectations for women among two NA tribes located in the southeastern region of the United States. The framework of Historical Oppression, Resilience and Transcendence (FHORT), Hill-Collins's concept of "motherwork," and a framework of reproductive justice were used to frame the study and interpret findings. This critical ethnography included data from field notes, semistructured interviews, and focus groups. Reconstructive analysis, a specific type of thematic qualitative analysis for critical ethnographies, was used to interpret data. Participants from both tribes described themes related to the expectations and roles of mothers. These expectations included themes of (a) mothers as caretakers, (b) mothers as the centers of family and role models, (c) women to prioritize family over economic and educational aspirations, and (d) decolonizing norms for mothers. While historical oppression and patriarchal norms have constrained and regulated expectations for motherhood and the domestic roles of NA women, these findings also highlight how women decolonize these norms and find ways to reclaim their power through their roles as mothers.

All Work and No Play: Indigenous Women "Pulling the Weight" in Home Life

The invisible labor of household management, including child care, housework, and financial responsibilities, is a contemporary form of historical oppression adding strain and contributing to mothers' role overload, depression, distress, and health impairments. The purpose of this article is to use the Framework of Historical Oppression, Resilience, and Transcendence to understand the experiences of gender dynamics in home life responsibilities among two Southeastern tribes. Reconstructive analysis from a critical ethnography with 436 participants revealed the following themes: (1) moms "mostly pulling the weight"; (2) women and child care: "We do it all," and men-"If they're there, they're there"; (3) financial imbalances; and (4) women's resilience and resistance. Despite experiencing the resilience of gender egalitarianism prior to colonization, women persistently experience the effects of the historical oppression of patriarchal colonialism through being overburdened and undervalued in home life. Decolonization is needed to re-establish gender egalitarianism to redress this patriarchal oppression.

Harsh Parenting Predicts Novel HPA Receptor Gene Methylation and NR3C1 Methylation Predicts Cortisol Daily Slope in Middle Childhood

Adverse experiences in childhood are associated with altered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function and negative health outcomes throughout life. It is now commonly accepted that abuse and neglect can alter epigenetic regulation of HPA genes. Accumulated evidence suggests harsh parenting practices such as spanking are also strong predictors of negative health outcomes. We predicted harsh parenting at 2.5 years old would predict HPA gene DNA methylation similarly to abuse and neglect, and cortisol output at 8.5 years old. Saliva samples were collected three times a day across 3 days to estimate cortisol diurnal slopes. Methylation was quantified using the Illumina Infinium MethylationEPIC array BeadChip (850 K) with DNA collected from buccal cells. We used principal components analysis to compute a summary statistic for CpG sites across candidate genes. The first and second components were used as outcome variables in mixed linear regression analyses with harsh parenting as a predictor variable. We found harsh parenting significantly predicted methylation of several HPA axis genes, including novel gene associations with AVPRB1, CRHR1, CRHR2, and MC2R (FDR corrected p < 0.05). Further, we found NR3C1 methylation predicted a steeper diurnal cortisol slope. Our results extend the current literature by demonstrating harsh parenting may influence DNA methylation similarly to more extreme early life experiences such as abuse and neglect. Further, we show NR3C1 methylation is associated with diurnal HPA function. Elucidating the molecular consequences of harsh parenting on health can inform best parenting practices and provide potential treatment targets for common complex disorders.

"I have turned into a foreman here at home": Families and work-life balance in times of COVID-19 in a gender equality paradise

This article explores the gendered realities of work-life balance in Iceland during the COVID-19 pandemic, in particular how these societal changes reflect and affect the gendered division of unpaid labor, such as childcare and household chores. The study draws on open-ended real-time diary entries, collected for 2 weeks during the peak of the pandemic in Iceland. The entries represent the voices of 37 mothers in heteronormative relationships. The findings imply that, during the pandemic, the mothers took on greater mental work than before. They also described intense emotional labor, as they tried to keep everyone calm and safe. The division of tasks at home lay on their shoulders, causing them stress and frustration. The findings suggest that, even in a country that has been at the top of the Gender Gap Index for several years, an unprecedented situation like COVID-19 can reveal and exaggerate strong gender norms and expectations toward mothers.

Relationships among parenting stress, health-promoting behaviors, and health-related quality of life in Korean mothers of children with cerebral palsy

Health-promoting behaviors have been shown to enhance the quality of life across diverse populations. In this study, we examined the indirect effects of several health-promoting behaviors on the relationship between parenting stress and health-related quality of life in mothers of children with cerebral palsy (CP). A convenience sample of Korean mothers (N = 180) of children aged 10 months to 12 years with CP was recruited from clinical and school settings. Health-promoting behaviors were measured using the health-promoting lifestyle profile II, which is comprised of six subscales: health responsibility, physical activity, nutrition, spiritual growth, interpersonal relations, and stress management. Multiple mediation analyses were conducted to examine the mediating role of these behavioral categories. Spiritual growth (β = .56, p < .05) had an indirect effect on the relationship between parenting stress and physical health-related quality of life while spiritual growth (β = -1.00, p < .01) and stress management (β = -.80, p < .05) were found to mediate the association between parenting stress and mental health-related quality of life. The findings of multiple mediation analyses provide evidence of the influence of specific health-promoting behaviors on health-related quality of life, thereby informing the development of intervention programs for mothers of children with disabilities.

General Mental Health State Indicators in Argentinean Women During Quarantine of up to 80-Day Duration for COVID-19 Pandemic

Introduction: Argentinean quarantine during the COVID-19 pandemic is one of the most long-lasting worldwide. We focused on the first 80-days of this quarantine on Argentinean women. Our aims were to analyze differences in general mental health state (MHS) indicators, by the (1) sites of residence with different prevalence of COVID-19 cases, and (2) quarantine duration; (3) to assess multiple relationships between each general MHS indicator and potentially affecting factors. Methods: We used a cross-sectional design with convenience successive sampling (N = 5,013). The online survey included a socio-demographic questionnaire (elaborated ad hoc) with standardized and validated self-reported questionnaires (General Health Questionnaire, Kessler Psychological Distress Scale) measuring the MHS indicators: self-perceived health, psychological discomfort, social functioning and coping, and psychological distress. Results: Worse self-perceived health and higher psychological discomfort affected significantly more women residing in sites with high prevalence of COVID-19 cases, compared to those residing in sites with intermediate prevalence, but effect sizes were small. Mean scores of all general MHS indicators were significantly worse for longer quarantine sub-periods (up to 53, 68, and 80-day duration) than for shorter sub-periods (up to seven, 13, and 25-day duration). Being a younger age, having mental disorder history, and longer quarantine durations were associated to worsening MHS, while the lack of previous suicide attempt has a protective effect. Discussion: Our findings show that a worse MHS during quarantine may not be attributed to the objective risk of contagion (measured greater or less), and under quarantine, women MHS-as indicated by group central tendency measures-got worse as time went by. This strongly suggests that special attention needs to be paid to younger women and to women with history of mental disorder. Along with physical health, mental health must be a priority for the Government during and after quarantine and the COVID-19 pandemic.

Occupational Health Science in the Time of COVID-19: Now more than Ever

Workers bear a heavy share of the burden of how countries contend with COVID-19; they face numerous serious threats to their occupational health ranging from those associated with direct exposure to the virus to those reflecting the conflicts between work and family demands. Ten experts were invited to comment on occupational health issues unique to their areas of expertise. The topics include work-family issues, occupational health issues faced by emergency medical personnel, the transition to telework, discrimination against Asian-Americans, work stressors, presenteeism, the need for supportive supervision, safety concerns, economic stressors, and reminders of death at work. Their comments describe the nature of the occupational health concerns created by COVID-19 and discuss both unanswered research questions and recommendations to help organizations reduce the impacts of COVID-19 on workers.

Toward fostering resilience on a large scale: Connecting communities of caregivers

In interventions for at-risk children, Tom Dishion strongly exhorted programs that are short term, cost-effective, and delivered in families' own communities, just as resilience researchers underscore the need for programs that provide ongoing support for children's primary caregivers, and are implementable on a large scale. Presented here are preliminary results on a short-term intervention for mothers, the Authentic Connections Virtual Groups. A previous randomized trial of the in-person version of this program, conducted with mothers at high risk for stress and burnout, showed significant benefits. There had been zero dropouts across the 3-month program, and participants showed significant improvements on psychological indices as well as cortisol, even 3 months after the program ended. In the present study, virtual groups were conducted with five sets of women, all white-collar professionals with highly stressful, exacting careers, and most also primary caregivers of their children. Again, there were zero dropouts. Mean satisfaction ratings were 9.6 of 10, and the Net Promoter Score (promoters vs. detractors) fell in the "world class" range. To illuminate mechanisms of change, participants' responses to open-ended questions on the groups' value are presented verbatim. Recurrently mentioned were the development of new, authentic connections and invaluable ongoing support. These results, with the low costs and ease of women's attendance, attest to the value of expanding offerings such as these, toward benefiting even more highly stressed mothers themselves as well as the children for whose care they are responsible.

Are the Processes Underlying Discrimination the Same for Women and Men? A Critical Review of Congruity Models of Gender Discrimination

Although classic congruity models of gender discrimination (e.g., role congruity theory, lack of fit) predict negative outcomes for both women and men in gender-incongruent domains, the literature has focused almost exclusively on discrimination against women. A number of recent studies have begun to address the question of whether and under what circumstances men can also be the targets of gender discrimination. However, the results of these studies have so far been mixed. Therefore, the question of whether men, like women, also suffer discrimination when in gender incongruent roles and domains remains unclear. The goal of the present paper is to integrate and critically examine the burgeoning literature on gender discrimination against men in order to assess whether the symmetrical predictions of congruity models are supported. Through this close analysis and integration of the literature, I aim to identify remaining gaps in the research on gender discrimination. In particular, I propose that researchers of gender discrimination would benefit from expanding their scope beyond that of paid work.