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Kenngott KGJ, Albert J, Meyer-Wolfarth F, Schaumann GE, Muñoz K. Fusarium Mycotoxins in Maize Field Soils: Method Validation and Implications for Sampling Strategy. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:130. [PMID: 35202157 PMCID: PMC8875666 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14020130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2021] [Revised: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
While mycotoxins are generally regarded as food contamination issues, there is growing interest in mycotoxins as environmental pollutants. The main sources of trichothecene and zearalenone mycotoxins in the environment are mainly attributed to Fusarium infested fields, where mycotoxins can wash off in infested plants or harvest residues. Subsequently, mycotoxins inevitably enter the soil. In this context, investigations into the effects, fate, and transport are still needed. However, there is a lack of analytical methods used to determine Fusarium toxins in soil matrices. We aimed to validate an analytical method capable of determining the toxins nivalenol (NIV), deoxynivalenol (DON), 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-AcDON), and zearalenone (ZEN), at environmentally relevant concentrations, in five contrasting agricultural soils. Soils were spiked at three levels (3, 9 and 15 ng g-1), extracted by solid-liquid extraction assisted with ultrasonication, using a generic solvent composition of acetonitrile:water 84:16 (v:v) and measured by LC-HRMS. Method validation was successful for NIV, DON, and 15-AcDON with mean recoveries > 93% and RSDr < 10%. ZEN failed the validation criteria. The validated method was applied to eight conventionally managed maize field soils during harvest season, to provide a first insight into DON, NIV, and 15-AcDON levels. Mycotoxins were present in two out of eight sampled maize fields. Soil mycotoxin concentrations ranged from 0.53 to 19.4 ng g-1 and 0.8 to 2.2 ng g-1 for DON and NIV, respectively. Additionally, we found indication that "hot-spot" concentrations were restricted to small scales (<5 cm) with implications for field scale soil monitoring strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kilian G. J. Kenngott
- Group of Environmental and Soil Chemistry, Institute for Environmental Sciences (iES) Landau, University of Koblenz-Landau, Fortstraße 7, 76829 Landau, Germany; (K.G.J.K.); (J.A.); (G.E.S.)
| | - Julius Albert
- Group of Environmental and Soil Chemistry, Institute for Environmental Sciences (iES) Landau, University of Koblenz-Landau, Fortstraße 7, 76829 Landau, Germany; (K.G.J.K.); (J.A.); (G.E.S.)
| | - Friederike Meyer-Wolfarth
- Julius Kühn Institute (JKI), Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Institute for Plant Protection in Field Crops and Grassland, Messeweg 11/12, 38104 Braunschweig, Germany;
| | - Gabriele E. Schaumann
- Group of Environmental and Soil Chemistry, Institute for Environmental Sciences (iES) Landau, University of Koblenz-Landau, Fortstraße 7, 76829 Landau, Germany; (K.G.J.K.); (J.A.); (G.E.S.)
| | - Katherine Muñoz
- Group of Organic and Ecological Chemistry, Institute for Environmental Sciences (iES) Landau, University of Koblenz-Landau, Fortstraße 7, 76829 Landau, Germany
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Starr JM, Rushing BR, Selim MI. Solvent-dependent transformation of aflatoxin B 1 in soil. Mycotoxin Res 2017; 33:197-205. [PMID: 28434149 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-017-0278-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Revised: 04/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
To date, all studies of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) transformation in soil or in purified mineral systems have identified aflatoxins B2 (AFB2) and G2 (AFG2) as the primary transformation products. However, identification in these studies was made using thin layer chromatography which has relatively low resolution, and these studies did not identify a viable mechanism by which such transformations would occur. Further, the use of methanol as the solvent delivery vehicle in these studies may have contributed to formation of artifactual transformation products. In this study, we investigated the role of the solvent vehicle in the transformation of AFB1 in soil. To do this, we spiked soils with AFB1 dissolved in water (93:7, water/methanol) or methanol and used HPLC-UV and HPLC-MS to identify the transformation products. Contrasting previous published reports, we did not detect AFB2 or AFG2. In an aqueous-soil environment, we identified aflatoxin B2a (AFB2a) as the single major transformation product. We propose that AFB2a is formed from hydrolysis of AFB1 with the soil acting as an acid catalyst. Alternatively, when methanol was used, we identified methoxy aflatoxin species likely formed via acid-catalyzed addition of methanol to AFB1. These results suggest that where soil moisture is adequate, AFB1 is hydrolyzed to AFB2a and that reactive organic solvents should be avoided when replicating natural conditions to study the fate of AFB1 in soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Starr
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Exposure Research Laboratory, USEPA MD D205-05, 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27711, USA.
| | - Blake R Rushing
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, East Carolina University, Brody School of Medicine, 600 Moye Boulevard, Greenville, NC, 27834, USA
| | - Mustafa I Selim
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, East Carolina University, Brody School of Medicine, 600 Moye Boulevard, Greenville, NC, 27834, USA
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Lin Q, Yang X, Huang X, Wang S, Chao Y, Qiu R. Subcellular distribution and uptake mechanism of di-n-butyl phthalate in roots of pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) seedlings. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 23:329-337. [PMID: 26304812 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-015-5247-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Phthalate acid esters (PAEs) are of particular concern due to their potential environmental risk to human and nonhuman organisms. Although uptake of PAEs by plants has been reported by several researchers, information about the intracellular distribution and uptake mechanisms of PAEs is still lacking. In this study, a series of hydroponic experiments using intact pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) seedlings was conducted to investigate how di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), one of the most frequently identified PAEs in the environment, enters and is distributed in roots. DnBP was transported into subcellular tissues rapidly in the initial uptake period (<12 h). More than 80% of DnBP was detected in the cell walls and organelles, which suggests that DnBP is primarily accumulated in these two fractions due to their high affinity to DnBP. The kinetics of DnBP uptake were fitted well with the Michaelis-Menten equation, suggesting that a carrier-mediated process was involved. The application of 2,4-dinitrophenol and sodium vanadate reduced the uptake of DnBP by 37 and 26%, respectively, while aquaporin inhibitors, silver and glycerol, had no effect on DnBP uptake. These data demonstrated that the uptake of DnBP included a carrier-mediated and energy-dependent process without the participation of aquaporins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingqi Lin
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, D604, Dihuan Building, 135 Xingang Xi Road, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Xiuhong Yang
- Experimental Teaching Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai Campus, Tangjiawan Town, Zhuhai, 519082, China
| | - Xiongfei Huang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, D604, Dihuan Building, 135 Xingang Xi Road, Guangzhou, 510275, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, D604, Dihuan Building, 135 Xingang Xi Road, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Shizhong Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, D604, Dihuan Building, 135 Xingang Xi Road, Guangzhou, 510275, China.
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, D604, Dihuan Building, 135 Xingang Xi Road, Guangzhou, 510275, China.
| | - Yuanqing Chao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, D604, Dihuan Building, 135 Xingang Xi Road, Guangzhou, 510275, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, D604, Dihuan Building, 135 Xingang Xi Road, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Rongliang Qiu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, D604, Dihuan Building, 135 Xingang Xi Road, Guangzhou, 510275, China.
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, D604, Dihuan Building, 135 Xingang Xi Road, Guangzhou, 510275, China.
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Hariprasad P, Vipin AV, Karuna S, Raksha RK, Venkateswaran G. Natural aflatoxin uptake by sugarcane (Saccharum officinaurum L.) and its persistence in jaggery. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 22:6246-6253. [PMID: 25408078 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-014-3851-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2014] [Accepted: 11/10/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The present study focused on aflatoxin (AF) uptake by sugarcanes from contaminated soils, and its persistence in jaggery. Analysis of 25 agricultural soil samples from sugarcane growing fields revealed that 80% were found contaminated with AF ranging from 0.5 to 22 ppb and all samples harbored aflatoxigenic fungi. Forty percent of the juices extracted from sugarcane grown in contaminated soil recorded AF ranging from 1.0 to 9.5 ppb. Conversely, jaggery prepared from those samples was almost free from AF. Further, greenhouse experiment confirms the AF uptake ability of sugarcane plants. Analysis of sugarcane juice and jaggery collected from local vendor showed 21% (0.5 to 6.5 ppb) and 5.6% (0.5-1.0 ppb) of AF contamination, respectively. Aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus strain was evaluated for their ability to grow and produce AF on jaggery medium. At 14th day after inoculation, decreased concentration of AF was recorded in jaggery medium ranging from 0 to 120 mg jaggery/ml, above which AF was absent though the fungal growth was noted. From the results, it could be concluded that sugarcane plants have the ability to uptake AF from contaminated soil, but AF was reduced during jaggery preparation. Also, higher concentration of jaggery was inhibitory to AF production.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Hariprasad
- Centre for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi, 110016, India
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