Effects of acute swimming exercise on some elements in rats

Effects of Ovariectomy and Exercise Training on Mineral Status in a High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity Rat Model

Osteoporosis is a growing public health issue for an aging society. Previous studies have found both beneficial and detrimental effects of obesity on bone health. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of estrogen deficiency and physical activity on bone and blood concentrations of macrominerals (Ca, P, and Mg) and microminerals (Zn, Se, Cu, and Fe) in a high-fat diet-induced obesity rat model. Forty-eight female Wistar rats were divided into six groups: sham-operated and ovariectomized rats that received a standard diet (SD), high-fat diet (HFD), or HFD accompanied by physical exercise. The effect of ovariectomy on bone minerals varied with diet. Ovariectomy significantly decreased femoral Ca and Mg in sedentary rats receiving a SD; femoral Se, Cu, Zn, and Fe in sedentary rats on HFD; and plasma Fe in both sedentary rats on SD and exercising rats on HFD. The interaction of ovariectomy and diet had the strongest impact on Mg and Se concentrations in femur. In ovariectomized rats, HFD showed to have a protective effect on bone mineralization (femoral Ca and Mg), and a negative one on antioxidant microminerals (femoral Se, Cu, and Zn). Physical activity reduced the decline of Se, Cu, Zn, and Fe in the femur of ovariectomized rats on HFD. In the current state of knowledge, it is difficult to suggest if decreased femoral levels of antioxidant microminerals may contribute to the pathophysiology of osteoporosis in obese individuals or just reflect the mineral status in the body.

The benefit of a supplement with the antioxidant melatonin on redox status and muscle damage in resistance-trained athletes

Previous data showed that the administration of high doses of melatonin improved the circadian system in athletes. Here, we investigated in the same experimental paradigm whether the antioxidant properties of melatonin has also beneficial effects against exercise-induced oxidative stress and muscle damage in athletes. Twenty-four athletes were treated with 100 mg·day−1 of melatonin or placebo 30 min before bedtime during 4 weeks in a randomized double-blind scheme. Exercise intensity was higher during the study that before starting it. Blood samples were collected before and after treatment, and plasma was used for oxygen radical absorption capacity (ORAC), lipid peroxidation (LPO), nitrite plus nitrate (NOx), and advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP) determinations. Glutathione (GSH), glutathione disulphide (GSSG) levels, and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and reductase (GRd) activities, were measured in erythrocytes. Melatonin intake increased ORAC, reduced LPO and NOx levels, and prevented the increase of AOPP, compared to placebo group. Melatonin was also more efficient than placebo in reducing GSSG·GSH−1 and GPx·GRd−1 ratios. Melatonin, but not placebo, reduced creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, creatinine, and total cholesterol levels. Overall, the data reflect a beneficial effect of melatonin treatment in resistance-training athletes, preventing extra- and intracellular oxidative stress induced by exercise, and yielding further skeletal muscle protection against exercise-induced oxidative damage.

Effect of a four-week exercise program on the secretion of IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2 and IL-6 cytokines in elite Taekwondo athletes

The aim of the present study was to examine how a 4-week exercise program affects the serum levels of certain cytokines in Taekwondo athletes. The study involved 10 elite male Taekwondo athletes (mean age, 20.67±0.24 years; mean weight, 65.45±1.69 kg) who were studying at the Physical Education and Sports High School of Selçuk University (Konya, Turkey) in June 2014. The subjects were involved in a Taekwondo exercise program on every weekday for 4 weeks. The subjects were also engaged in an exercise to exhaustion session twice; once before starting the 4-week exercise program and once upon completion of the program. Blood samples were collected from the subjects in four rounds: During rest, upon fatigue, and before and after the 4-week exercise program. These samples were analyzed to establish the serum levels of interferon-γ (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-2 and IL-6 using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test kits. Pre- and post-exercise program, the IFN-γ and TNF-α levels did not show any significant difference. When compared with the pre-exercise levels, serum IL-2 levels of the subjects were found to be elevated after the 4-week exercise program. The highest serum IL-6 values were established after the subjects were exercised to fatigue before the exercise program was initiated (P<0.05). The 4-week exercise program resulted in a decrease in IL-6 levels (P<0.05). The findings of the study indicate that a 4-week exercise program did not result in significant changes in IFN-γ and TNF-α levels, but led to an increase in IL-2 levels. The notable finding of the present study is that a 4-week exercise program reduces cellular immune functions and, thus, the levels of IL-6, which negatively influences performance.

The Effect of Caffeic Acid Phenethyl Ester (CAPE) Fortification on the Liver Element Distribution that Occurs After Exercise

The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of the caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) fortification applied to the rats, which were made to exercise, on the liver elements. The study was conducted on 32 Sprague-Dawley male rats. The experimental animals were divided into 4 groups in equal numbers. Group 1 is the group which was applied 10 μmol/kg/day CAPE as intraperitoneal (IP) for 4 weeks, and they were not made to exercise at the end of the application. Group 2 is the group which was applied 10 μmol/kg/day CAPE as IP for 4 weeks, and they were made to exercise at the end of the 4th week. Group 3 is the general control group. Group 4 is the swimming control group. A 10 mmol/kg CAPE application dissolved in ethyl alcohol of 10 % was applied to the CAPE group. Sodium (Na), zinc (Zn), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), chrome (Cr), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), copper (Cu) and cadmium (Cd) levels were identified in the liver samples at the end of the application. The results of the study suggest that exercise and CAPE fortification in rats cause changes in the Na, Zn, Ca, Fe and Cr parameters in liver tissues, and it does not affect Cd, Cu, Mg and K element distribution. It is thought that CAPE fortification would be helpful for preserving those parameters whose levels are known to be changing with exercise.

Relationships between blood Mg2+ and energy metabolites/enzymes after acute exhaustive swimming exercise in rats

Magnesium (Mg) plays a central role in neuronal activity, cardiac excitability, neuromuscular transmission, muscular contraction, vasomotor tone, and blood pressure, all of which are significantly related to physical performance. To date, the available data about detection of blood total Mg (tMg; free-ionized, protein-bound, and anion-complex forms) are inconsistent, and there is limited information on blood free-ionized Mg (Mg(2+)) in relation to physical exercise. The aim of this study was to determine the biochemical changes related to energy metabolism after acute exhaustive swimming exercise (AESE) in rats in an attempt to correlate the role of blood Mg(2+) with metabolites/enzymes related to energy production. After AESE, blood Mg(2+), tMg, K(+), partial pressure of carbon dioxide, lactate, total protein (T-PRO), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), creatinine (CRE), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), uric acid (UA), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine phosphatase (ALP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and creatinine kinase (CK) were significantly increased, whereas pH, partial pressure of oxygen, oxygen saturation, the Mg(2+)/tMg and Ca(2+)/Mg(2+) ratios, HCO3 (-), glucose, triglyceride (TG), and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) were significantly decreased. During AESE, lactate, T-PRO, albumin, AST, ALP, LDH, CK, CRE, BUN, and UA showed significant positive correlations with changes in blood Mg(2+), while glucose, TG, and LDL correlated to Mg(2+) in a negative manner. In conclusion, AESE induced increases in both blood Mg(2+) and tMg, accompanied by changes in blood metabolites and enzymes related to energy metabolism due to increased metabolic demands and mechanical damages.

Influence of training frequency on serum concentrations of some essential trace elements and electrolytes in male swimmers

Elemental fluctuations during physical performances have been a point of interest. This study was designed to investigate the effect of swimming frequency on serum concentrations of some trace elements (chromium, iron, copper, zinc, selenium) and electrolytes (sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium). Three groups of different-level male swimmers were included in the study, as elite swimmers (n = 14), amateur swimmers (n = 11), and sedentary individuals (n = 10). Elite and amateur swimmer groups followed a 3-week training program. At the end of the period, all volunteers were subjected to a controlled swimming test, and blood samples were collected at the beginning of (pre-test), immediately after (post-test), and 1 h after this activity. Element concentrations were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry using a dilute and shoot procedure. Apart from the swimming test applied, pre-test calcium and potassium levels were higher in elite swimmers compared to amateurs and controls. The difference in pre-test levels of these elements can be associated with adaptive mechanisms emerged by the frequent training. Regarding the test applied, changes in magnesium, calcium, copper, zinc, and selenium levels exhibited a common pattern in all study groups, with higher post-test serum concentrations. Another point of note was a drop of copper, zinc, and selenium levels at 1 h after the test in elite swimmers. The decrease in serum zinc was also observed in the other groups. Results highlight the value of regular control of elemental status to provide insight into transient effects and deficiencies.

Effects of high-intensity training and resumed training on macroelement and microelement of elite basketball athletes

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of high-intensity training and resumed training in hot and humid environment on plasma macro- and microelements levels of elite Han Chinese basketball players. Ten well-trained elite basketball athletes' plasma macroelements (chlorin, sodium, potassium, and calcium), creatine kinase (CK), and creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB) were measured before and after a 2-h high-intensity training, and microelements (zinc, copper, iron, and selenium) were determined before and after a 1-week high-intensity training and after a 1-week resumed training. The blood CK and CK-MB levels of the elite basketball athletes were significantly increased (P < 0.05) after high-intensity basketball training. The macroelements (chlorin, sodium, and calcium) levels of blood increased significantly except potassium after high-intensity basketball training. No significant differences (P > 0.05) were found in zinc and copper levels; nevertheless, the levels of plasma selenium and plasma iron were significantly lower (P < 0.05) after a 1-week high-intensity training. After a 1-week resumed training, except zinc, all of microelements measured had a trend toward original levels. These results implicated that high-intensity training would provoke the change of macroelements which would lead to electrolyte disturbance. In addition, the present study suggested that a 1-week high-intensity training would have an impact on microelement levels, especially for selenium and iron.

The effects of resistance exercise and post-exercise meal timing on the iron status in iron-deficient rats

Resistance exercise increases heme synthesis in the bone marrow and the hemoglobin in iron-deficient rats. Post-exercise early nutrient provision facilitates skeletal muscle protein synthesis compared to late provision. However, the effects of post-exercise nutrition timing on hemoglobin synthesis are unclear. The current study investigated the effect of post-exercise meal timing on the activity of the key enzyme involved in hemoglobin synthesis, δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD), in the bone marrow and examined the hemoglobin concentration in iron-deficient rats. Male 4-week-old Sprague-Dawley rats were fed an iron-deficient diet containing 12 mg iron/kg and performed climbing exercise (5 min × 6 sets/day, 3 days/week) for 3 weeks. The rats were divided into a group fed a post-exercise meal early after exercise (E) or a group fed the meal 4 h after exercise (L). A single bout of exercise performed after the 3-week training period increased the bone marrow ALAD activity, plasma iron concentration, and transferrin saturation. Although the plasma iron concentration and transferrin saturation were lower in the E group than the L group after a single bout of exercise, the basal hematocrit, hemoglobin, and TIBC after 3 weeks did not differ between the groups. Therefore, resistance exercise increases the bone marrow ALAD activity, while the post-exercise meal timing has no effect on the hemoglobin concentration in iron-deficient rats.

The effects of physical exercise on the serum iron profile in spontaneously hypertensive rats

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the profile of serum iron in spontaneously hypertensive rats after an aerobic physical exercise. To accomplish this, 12 normotensive Wistar rats and 12 spontaneously hypertensive rats were distributed into "physical exercise" and "no physical exercise" groups. The animals in the physical exercise group underwent to an aerobic exercise for a total of 4 weeks. Blood was collected for the analysis of iron. Our results indicate that rats of the physical exercise group had significantly lower serum iron levels after the aerobic exercise protocol compared to the spontaneously hypertensive rats no physical exercise group (F ((3,16)) = 4.4915, p < 0.01). No significant difference was found between no physical exercise groups. The results indicated that the difference in iron may be due to an increased demand for iron, prompted by chronic physical exercise. In addition, erythrocytosis has been associated with increased blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats, suggesting that iron reduction may be related to decreased blood pressure in these animals.

Effect of resistance exercise on iron status in moderately iron-deficient rats

Resistance exercise increases heme synthesis in the bone marrow, but it does not improve the hemoglobin status in severe iron-deficient rats on a diet containing less than 5 mg iron/kg. The current study investigated whether resistance exercise could mitigate hemoglobin status via increasing heme synthesis in moderately iron-deficient rats. Male 4-week-old Sprague-Dawley rats were fed an iron-deficient diet containing 12 mg iron/kg for 3 weeks. The rats were divided into two groups: a sedentary (S) group (n = 7) or an exercise (E) group (n = 7). The rats in the E group performed a climbing exercise (5 min × 6 sets/day, 3 days/week). The aminolevulinic acid dehydratase activity, hematocrit, and hemoglobin tended to be higher in group E than S. The iron content in the flexor hallucis longus muscle was significantly higher in E than S, whereas the content in the liver, spleen, kidney, and heart did not significantly differ between the groups. Therefore, resistance exercise appears to improve hemoglobin via increasing heme synthesis in the bone marrow in moderately iron-deficient rats.

The effects of exercise and zinc deficiency on some elements in rats

The objective of the present study was to determine the effects of exercise and zinc deficiency on some elements in rats. Forty adult male Sprague-Dawley species male rats were allocated to four groups as follows: Group 1: control, Group 2: zinc-deficient, Group 3: exercise in which exercise group fed with a normal diet, Group 4: zinc-deficient exercise, exercise group fed by a zinc-deficient diet for 15 days. After the procedure ended, rats in groups 3 and 4 were exercised on the treadmill for 60 min at a speed of 6 m/min until the exhaustion. The rats were decapitated 48 h after exercise together with their controls, and blood samples were collected to determine copper (Cu), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and phosphorus (P) levels. The highest Cu and Fe values in the serum were obtained in group 2 (p < 0.01). The levels of these elements in group 4 were lower than those in group 2 and higher than the levels in groups 1 and 3 (p < 0.01). Serum Mg levels did not differ significantly between groups. Group 4 had the lowest serum Ca and P levels (p < 0.01). These same parameters in Group 2 were higher than those in group 4 but significantly lower than those in groups 1 and 3 (p < 0.01). There was no significant difference between Ca and P levels of groups 1 and 3. The results of the study indicate that zinc deficiency adversely affects copper, iron, calcium, and phosphorus mechanisms and that these adverse effects much more marked after an effort exercise.

Whole blood selenium concentrations in endurance horses

Exercise causes an increase in the production of reactive oxygen species, which can result in oxidant/antioxidant disequilibrium. Deficiency of antioxidants can further alter this balance in favor of pro-oxidation. Selenium (Se) is one of many antioxidant catalysts, as a component of the glutathione peroxidase enzymes. Soils and forages vary widely in Se concentration and a deficient diet can lead to sub-clinical or clinical deficiency in horses. Endurance horses are prone to oxidative stress during long periods of aerobic exercise and their performance could be affected by Se status. This study investigated the blood Se concentration in a group of endurance horses (n=56) residing and competing in California, a state containing several regions that tend to produce Se-deficient forages. The rate of Se deficiency in this group of horses was low, with only one horse being slightly below the reference range. Higher blood Se concentrations were not associated with improved performance in terms of ride time. There was no significant difference in Se concentration between horses that completed the ride and those that were disqualified, although blood Se concentrations were significantly higher in horses that received oral Se supplementation. An increase in blood Se concentration was observed following exercise and this warrants further study.