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Linares AM, Thaxton-Wiggins A, Unrine JM. Concentrations of Lead and Arsenic in Mother's Milk and Children's Blood in Peruvian Breastfeeding Dyads. J Hum Lact 2024; 40:69-79. [PMID: 38084709 PMCID: PMC10984648 DOI: 10.1177/08903344231212430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toxic trace elements could enter human milk through mothers' food consumption, drinking water, air, or incidental soil ingestion, and are of concern to the nursing infant. RESEARCH AIM To determine the concentration of toxic trace elements (lead and arsenic) in Peruvian mothers' milk and their association with blood concentrations in their own infants 3-20 months old. METHOD This exploratory, cross-sectional study, carried out in Peru, included breastfeeding mother/child dyads (N = 40). Following standardized protocols, biospecimens of human milk and child's blood were collected. RESULTS Lead and arsenic concentrations in milk were above the method detection limits in 73% and 100% of samples with median concentrations of 0.26 µg/L (IQR = 0.10, 0.33 µg/L) and 0.73 µg/L (IQR = 0.63, 0.91 µg/L), respectively. Concentrations of lead and arsenic in blood were 2.05 µg/dL (SD = 1.35), and 1.43 µg/dl (geometric mean: SD = 1.39), respectively. Blood lead concentrations in 12.5% (n = 5) of the samples were above the U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention reference value (< 3.5 µg/dl), and over half of arsenic concentrations were above the acceptable levels of < 1.3 µg/dl (Mayo Clinic Interpretative Handbook). Our results showed that for every one-month increase in age, lead blood concentrations increased by 0.1 µg/dl (p = 0.023). Additionally, every 1 µg/L increase in the mother's milk arsenic was associated with a 1.40 µg/dl increase in the child's blood arsenic concentration. CONCLUSIONS Implementing effective interventions to decrease the toxic exposure of reproductive-aged women is needed in Peru and worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jason M. Unrine
- Environmental Toxicology, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences. Agriculture Science Center North, Kentucky Water Resources Research Institute, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
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Song YP, Lv JW, Zhang ZC, Qian QH, Fan YJ, Chen DZ, Zhang H, Xu FX, Zhang C, Huang Y, Wang H, Wei W, Xu DX. Effects of Gestational Arsenic Exposures on Placental and Fetal Development in Mice: The Role of Cyr61 m6A. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2023; 131:97004. [PMID: 37682722 PMCID: PMC10489955 DOI: 10.1289/ehp12207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several epidemiological investigations demonstrated that maternal arsenic (As) exposure elevated risk of fetal growth restriction (FGR), but the mechanism remains unclear. OBJECTIVES This study aimed to investigate the effects of gestational As exposure on placental and fetal development and its underlying mechanism. METHODS Dams were exposed to 0.15, 1.5, and 15 mg / L NaAsO 2 throughout pregnancy via drinking water. Sizes of fetuses and placentas, placental histopathology, and glycogen content were measured. Placental RNA sequencing was conducted. Human trophoblasts were exposed to NaAsO 2 (2 μ M ) to establish an in vitro model of As exposure. The mRNA stability and protein level of genes identified through RNA sequencing were measured. N 6 -Methyladenosine (m 6 A ) modification was detected by methylated RNA immunoprecipitation-quantitative real-time polymerase chain reason (qPCR). The binding ability of insulin-like growth factor 2 binding protein 2 to the gene of interest was detected by RNA-binding protein immunoprecipitation-qPCR. Intracellular S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) and methyltransferase activity were determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and colorimetry, respectively. In vitro As + 3 methyltransferase (As3MT) knockdown or SAM supplementation and in vivo folic acid (FA) supplementation were used to evaluate the protective effect. A case-control study verified the findings. RESULTS Sizes of fetuses (exposed to 1.5 and 15 mg / L NaAsO 2 ) and placentas (exposed to 15 mg / L NaAsO 2 ) were lower in As-exposed mice. More glycogen + trophoblasts accumulated and the expression of markers of interstitial invasion was lower in the 15 mg / L NaAsO 2 -exposed mouse group in comparison with control. Placental RNA sequencing identified cysteine-rich angiogenic inducer 61 (Cyr61) as a candidate gene of interest. Mechanistically, mice and cells exposed to As had lower protein expression of CYR61, and this was attributed to a lower incidence of Cyr61 m 6 A . Furthermore, cells exposed to As had lower methyltransferase activity, suggesting that this could be the mechanism by which Cyr61 m 6 A was affected. Depletion of intracellular SAM, a cofactor for m 6 A methyltransferase catalytic domain, partially contributed to As-induced methyltransferase activity reduction. Either As3MT knockdown or SAM supplementation attenuated As-induced Cyr61 m 6 A down-regulation. In mice, FA supplementation rescued As-induced defective trophoblastic invasion and FGR. In humans, a negative correlation between maternal urinary As and plasma CYR61 was observed in infants who were small for gestational age. DISCUSSION Using in vitro and in vivo models, we found that intracellular SAM depletion-mediated Cyr61 m 6 A down-regulation partially contributed to As-induced defective trophoblastic invasion and FGR. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP12207.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Ping Song
- Department of Toxicology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Jin-Wei Lv
- Department of Toxicology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Zhi-Cheng Zhang
- Department of Toxicology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Qing-Hua Qian
- Department of Toxicology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yi-Jun Fan
- Department of Toxicology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
- Second Affiliated Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Dao-Zhen Chen
- Wuxi Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Heng Zhang
- Wuxi Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Fei-Xiang Xu
- Department of Toxicology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Cheng Zhang
- Department of Toxicology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yichao Huang
- Department of Toxicology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Hua Wang
- Department of Toxicology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Wei Wei
- Key Laboratory of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Education Ministry of China, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - De-Xiang Xu
- Department of Toxicology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
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Jiménez-Oyola S, Valverde-Armas PE, Romero-Crespo P, Capa D, Valdivieso A, Coronel-León J, Guzmán-Martínez F, Chavez E. Heavy metal(loid)s contamination in water and sediments in a mining area in Ecuador: a comprehensive assessment for drinking water quality and human health risk. ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2023:10.1007/s10653-023-01546-3. [PMID: 36997826 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-023-01546-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Elevated heavy metal(loid)s concentrations in water lower its quality posing a threat to consumers. This study aims to assess the human health risk caused by heavy metal(loid)s in tap water in Santa Rosa city, Ecuador, and the ecological risk of stream water and sediments in the Santa Rosa River. Concentrations of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn were evaluated in tap waters, stream waters, and sediment samples during the rainy and dry seasons. The Metal Index (MI), Geo-accumulation Index (Igeo), Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI), and the levels of carcinogenic (CR) and non-carcinogenic risk (HQ) were determined. The results revealed severe pollution levels, mainly in Los Gringos and El Panteon streams, both tributaries of the Santa Rosa River, the primary water source for Santa Rosa inhabitants. More than 20% of the surface water samples showed severe contamination (MI > 6), and 90% of the tap water samples presented a MI value between 1 and 4, which indicates slight to moderate pollution. Drinking water displayed high levels of As, with 83% of the tap water samples collected from households in the dry season above the recommended concentration set by the World Health Organization and Ecuadorian legislation. The Igeo-Cd in the sediment samples was significantly high (Igeo > 3), and the PERI showed very high ecological risk (PERI > 600), with Cd as the main pollutant. HQ and CR were above the safe exposure threshold, suggesting that residents are at risk from tap water consumption, with As being the primary concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Jiménez-Oyola
- Facultad de Ingeniería en Ciencias de la Tierra, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, ESPOL, Campus Gustavo Galindo Km 30.5 Vía Perimetral, P.O. Box 09-01-5863, Guayaquil, Ecuador.
| | - Priscila E Valverde-Armas
- Facultad de Ingeniería en Ciencias de la Tierra, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, ESPOL, Campus Gustavo Galindo Km 30.5 Vía Perimetral, P.O. Box 09-01-5863, Guayaquil, Ecuador
| | - Paola Romero-Crespo
- Facultad de Ingeniería en Ciencias de la Tierra, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, ESPOL, Campus Gustavo Galindo Km 30.5 Vía Perimetral, P.O. Box 09-01-5863, Guayaquil, Ecuador
| | - Diego Capa
- Facultad de Ingeniería en Ciencias de la Tierra, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, ESPOL, Campus Gustavo Galindo Km 30.5 Vía Perimetral, P.O. Box 09-01-5863, Guayaquil, Ecuador
| | - Abner Valdivieso
- Facultad de Ingeniería en Ciencias de la Tierra, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, ESPOL, Campus Gustavo Galindo Km 30.5 Vía Perimetral, P.O. Box 09-01-5863, Guayaquil, Ecuador
| | - Jonathan Coronel-León
- Facultad de Ingeniería Mecánica y Ciencias de la Producción, Centro de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas del Ecuador, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, ESPOL, Campus Gustavo Galindo, Km 30.5, Vía Perimetral, P.O. Box 09-01-5863, Guayaquil, Ecuador
| | - Fredy Guzmán-Martínez
- Mexican Geological Survey (SGM), Boulevard Felipe Angeles, Km. 93.50-4, 42083, Pachuca, Hidalgo, Mexico
| | - Eduardo Chavez
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, ESPOL, Campus Gustavo Galindo Km 30.5 Vía Perimetral, P.O. Box 09-01-5863, Guayaquil, Ecuador
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Delahoy MJ, Hubbard S, Mattioli M, Culquichicón C, Knee J, Brown J, Cabrera L, Barr DB, Ryan PB, Lescano AG, Gilman RH, Levy K. High Prevalence of Chemical and Microbiological Drinking Water Contaminants in Households with Infants Enrolled in a Birth Cohort-Piura, Peru, 2016. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2022; 107:881-892. [PMID: 35970283 PMCID: PMC9651523 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.22-0098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemical and microbiological drinking water contaminants pose risks to child health but are not often evaluated concurrently. At two consecutive visits to 96 households in Piura, Peru, we collected drinking water samples, administered health and exposure questionnaires, and collected infant stool samples. Standard methods were used to quantify heavy metals/metalloids, pesticides, and Escherichia coli concentrations in water samples. Stool samples were assayed for bacterial, viral, and parasitic enteropathogens. The primary drinking water source was indoor piped water for 70 of 96 households (73%); 36 households (38%) stored drinking water from the primary source in containers in the home. We found high prevalence of chemical and microbiological contaminants in household drinking water samples: arsenic was detected in 50% of 96 samples, ≥ 1 pesticide was detected in 65% of 92 samples, and E. coli was detected in 37% of 319 samples. Drinking water samples that had been stored in containers had higher odds of E. coli detection (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 4.50; 95% CI: 2.04-9.95) and pesticide detection (OR: 6.55; 95% CI: 2.05-21.0) compared with samples collected directly from a tap. Most infants (68%) had ≥ 1 enteropathogen detected in their stool. Higher odds of enteropathogen infection at the second visit were observed among infants from households where pesticides were detected in drinking water at the first visit (aOR: 2.93; 95% CI: 1.13-7.61). Results show concurrent risks of exposure to microbiological and chemical contaminants in drinking water in a low-income setting, despite high access to piped drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miranda J. Delahoy
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - Sydney Hubbard
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - Mia Mattioli
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - Carlos Culquichicón
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
- Emerge, Emerging Diseases and Climate Change Research Unit, School of Public Health and Administration, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- School of Health Sciences, Universidad Nacional de Piura, Piura, Peru
| | - Jackie Knee
- Disease Control Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Joe Brown
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States
| | | | - Dana Boyd Barr
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - P. Barry Ryan
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - Andres G. Lescano
- Emerge, Emerging Diseases and Climate Change Research Unit, School of Public Health and Administration, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Robert H. Gilman
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Karen Levy
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States
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Srivastava V, Karim AV, Babu DS, Nidheesh PV, Kumar MS, Gao B. Metal‐Loaded Biochar for the Removal of Arsenic from Water: A Critical Review on Overall Effectiveness, Governing Mechanisms, and Influential Factors. ChemistrySelect 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202200504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vartika Srivastava
- CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute Nagpur Maharashtra 440020 India
| | - Ansaf V. Karim
- Environmental Science and Engineering Department Indian Institute of Technology Bombay 400076 India
| | - Davuluri Syam Babu
- CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute Nagpur Maharashtra 440020 India
| | | | - Manukonda Suresh Kumar
- CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute Nagpur Maharashtra 440020 India
| | - Bin Gao
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering University of Florida Gainesville FL 32611 USA
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Portugal ÓB, Flores-Quispe M. Concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, and lead in herbal infusion tea bags marketed in Tacna, Peru. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2022; 194:534. [PMID: 35764709 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-022-10232-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, and lead in infusion tea bags of Camellia sinensis (tea), Pimpinella anisum (anise), Matricaria recutita (chamomile), Peumus boldus (boldo), and Cymbopogon citratus (lemongrass) were determined by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy (GFAAS) for four commercial brands sold in Tacna, Peru, to compare these concentrations with international standards. The moderate level of arsenic obtained for C. sinensis (0.294 mg kg-1) exceeded the Codex Alimentarius standard for three of the four analyzed brands, while the level of arsenic in P. boldus (0.220 mg kg-1) exceeded the same standard and the Mercado Común del Sur (MERCOSUR) parameters for only one brand. The moderate level of cadmium outlined in the Codex Alimentarius and by the World Health Organization (WHO) was exceeded by two infusion tea bag brands of M. recutita (0.210 mg kg-1) and one brand of C. citratus (0.134 mg kg-1). Finally, based on the MERCOSUR parameters, moderate levels of lead were exceeded by only one brand of C. citratus (0.535 mg kg-1). To evaluate possible health risks, we also calculated the hazard index (HI) of the heavy metals in the target herbal tea bags. The values obtained were less than 1, showing negligible noncarcinogenic health risks for consumers. Despite this information and because of the elevated concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, and lead obtained in some of our results, we suggest more detailed studies to obtain more information about the potential toxicity of these products to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Óscar Begazo Portugal
- Academic Administration Department, Universidad Nacional Jorge Basadre Grohmann, Avenida Miraflores s/n, Tacna, Peru
| | - Marisel Flores-Quispe
- Academic Administration Department, Universidad Nacional Jorge Basadre Grohmann, Avenida Miraflores s/n, Tacna, Peru.
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Hydrochemical Characteristics of Arsenic in Shallow Groundwater in Various Unconsolided Sediment Aquifers: A Case Study in Hetao Basin in Inner Mongolia, China. WATER 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/w14040669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
This study focused on the entire Hetao Basin, which can fall into four hydrogeological units, the Houtao Plain, Sanhuhe Plain, Hubao Plain, and South Bank Plain of the Yellow River, all of which are under different geological and environmental conditions. To systematically investigate the hydrochemical characteristics and spatial distribution of high-As groundwater (As > 10 μg/L), 974 samples were collected from shallow groundwater. As indicated from the results, high-As groundwater had an extensive distribution, and its spatial distribution in the four hydrogeological units exhibited significant variability. Three concentrated distribution areas were reported with high-As groundwater, which were all in the discharge areas of groundwater, and the arsenic contents in the groundwater were found to exceed 50 μg/L. The hydrochemical types of high-As groundwater in the HT Plain and the SHH Plain consisted of HCO3 SO4·Cl for anions and Na for cations, while those in the other two plains included HCO3 for anions as well as Na·Mg·Ca for cations. According to the pH values, the groundwater was weakly alkaline in the areas with high-As groundwater, and arsenic primarily existed as arsenite. Furthermore, high-As groundwater in the Hetao Basin was characterized by high contents of Fe (mean value of 2.77 mg/L) and HCO3− (mean value of 460 mg/L) and a low relative concentration of SO42− (average value of 310 mg/L). This study did not identify any significant correlation between groundwater arsenic and other ions (e.g., Fe2+, Fe3+, HCO3−, SO42−, NO2− and NO3−) in the entire Hetao Basin over a wide range of hydrogeological units. The results remained unchanged after the four hydrogeological units were analyzed. The special sedimentary environment evolution of the Hetao Basin was found as the prerequisite for the formation of high-arsenic groundwater. Furthermore, groundwater runoff conditions and hydrogeochemical processes in the basin were indicated as the factors controlling the formation of high-arsenic groundwater.
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Fano-Sizgorich D, Vásquez-Velásquez C, Yucra S, Vásquez V, Tokeshi P, Aguilar J, Ramírez-Atencio C, Barr DB, Gonzales GF. Total Urinary Arsenic and Inorganic Arsenic Concentrations and Birth Outcomes in Pregnant Women of Tacna, Peru: A Cross-Sectional Study. EXPOSURE AND HEALTH 2021; 13:133-140. [PMID: 33575507 PMCID: PMC7870591 DOI: 10.1007/s12403-020-00377-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Inorganic arsenic exposure has been linked to the development of several health conditions, including adverse birth outcomes; and around 150 million of people worldwide are exposed to levels above the WHO suggested limit of 10 μg/L. A recent risk assessment in pregnant women of Tacna, of this same population performed by our group, found that 70.25% were exposed to arsenic concentrations in drinking water ≥25 μg/L. The present study aimed to evaluate the relationship between prenatal total urinary arsenic (U-tAs) and inorganic arsenic (U-iAs) with adverse birth outcomes. A total of 147 pregnant women from the province of Tacna, Peru, during February - March, 2019, were evaluated for U-tAs and U-iAs exposure during their second trimester of pregnancy, while the birth records of their children were collected from the local hospital. The geometric mean U-tAs was 43.97 ± 25.88 μg/L (P50 22.30, range 5.99 - 181.94 μg/L) and U-iAs was 5.27 ± 2.91 μg/L. Controlling for maternal age, pre-pregnancy BMI, parity, mother's education and newborn sex, no relationship was observed between tertile of U-tAs and the birth outcomes considered, although we found an apparent but statistically non-significant dose-response relationship for small-for-gestational-age 2.38% ( 95% CI 0.003, 0.16), versus 7.32% (95% CI 0.02, 0.21%), versus 8.57% (0.03, 0.25%). This finding requires further evaluation considering other factors such as metabolic arsenic species, additional maternal covariates and ethnicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Fano-Sizgorich
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Reproduction, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Lima 31, Peru
| | - Cinthya Vásquez-Velásquez
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Reproduction, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Lima 31, Peru
| | - Sandra Yucra
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Reproduction, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Lima 31, Peru
| | - Vanessa Vásquez
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Reproduction, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Lima 31, Peru
| | - Patricio Tokeshi
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Reproduction, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Lima 31, Peru
| | - Julio Aguilar
- Universidad Nacional Jorge Basadre Grohmann, Tacna, Peru
| | | | - Dana Boyd Barr
- Gangarosa Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Gustavo F Gonzales
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Reproduction, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Lima 31, Peru
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