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Koster S, Prins N, Dufresnes C, France J, de Visser MC, Struijk RP, Wielstra B. The conservation paradox of an introduced population of a threatened species: spadefoot toads in the coastal dunes of the Netherlands. AMPHIBIA-REPTILIA 2022. [DOI: 10.1163/15685381-bja10106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Species that are threatened in their native range may actually prosper as introduced populations. To investigate how such introduced populations were established involves determining from where within the natural range the founder individuals originated. This can be accomplished through mtDNA barcoding. The common spadefoot toad (Pelobates fuscus) naturally occurs in the south and east of the Netherlands and has shown a rapid decline. Yet, a flourishing introduced population was recently discovered in the coastal dunes in the west of the country. We use mtDNA barcoding to determine the provenance of the introduced population. We sampled both native and introduced populations from the Netherlands and compared our sequences to haplotypes from across the entire distribution range. The mtDNA haplotypes found in the introduced population are distinct from those naturally occurring in the Netherlands and point towards an origin in the Pannonian Basin, on the boundary between Central and Southeastern Europe. Paradoxically, the thriving P. fuscus population in the Dutch coastal dunes should be considered a conservation risk to local biodiversity, even though within the native range in the Netherlands the species is severely threatened. Our study illustrates the complicated conservation questions associated with species that are both native and invasive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Koster
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, P.O. Box 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9505, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Nienke Prins
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, P.O. Box 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9505, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Christophe Dufresnes
- LASER, College of Biology and The Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - James France
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, P.O. Box 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9505, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Manon C. de Visser
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, P.O. Box 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9505, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Richard P.J.H. Struijk
- Reptile, Amphibian and Fish Conservation Netherlands (RAVON), P.O. Box 1413, 6501 BK Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ben Wielstra
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, P.O. Box 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9505, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
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Landler L, Stefke K. Long-term monitoring of common spadefoot toad activity in a European steppe using barn owl pellets. JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH-THESSALONIKI 2021; 28:4. [PMID: 33579379 PMCID: PMC7879639 DOI: 10.1186/s40709-021-00133-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Background One third of the worldwide amphibian species are threatened, therefore, efficient monitoring efforts are needed. Amphibians which adopt a hidden lifestyle, such as the common spadefoot toad, are often missed with standard surveying efforts. Spadefoot toads can be identified in regurgitated pellets of the barn owl, which provides an effective way to estimate toad activity. In our study we analyzed frequency of spadefoot toad remains from 2004 to 2016 in a steppe landscape in eastern Austria. Methods We used an automated model selection procedure together with a GLM analysis using a zero inflated error Poisson distribution, to analyze the presence of Pelobates fuscus in barn owl pellets. All analyses were done in the statistical software R, and the scripts to reproduce our results are available within this publication. Our approach may provide a template for other researchers to use for their own pellet data. Conclusions Our analysis suggested that activity of the common spadefoot toad is mainly influenced by rainfalls, while time of the year and temperature had small but significant effects. Interestingly, our data confirmed the possibility of a second breeding period in summer, triggered by heavy rainfalls. There were no indications for a population decrease in the observed years and locations. Our study shows that barn owl pellets can be used effectivley to assess pelobatid activity in an area. This might constitute a useful monitoring tool for conservation management for amphibians.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Landler
- Institute of Zoology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Gregor-Mendel-Straße 33/I, Vienna, 1180, Austria.
| | - Katharina Stefke
- Natural History Museum Vienna, Mammal Collection, Burgring 7, Wien, 1010, Austria
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Bulakhova N, Alfimov A, Berman D. The eastern boundary of the geographic range of the Pallas’ spadefoot Pelobates vespertinus (Anura, Amphibia) is limited by overwintering temperatures. HERPETOZOA 2020. [DOI: 10.3897/herpetozoa.33.e58050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We studied the relationship between the geographic distribution of the Pallas’ spadefoot (Pelobates vespertinus) and the soil temperature regime at the eastern boundary of this species’ range (south-western West Siberia and northwest Kazakhstan). This species overwinters underground, burrowing down to 1.5 m or deeper and has poor frost tolerance – it is unable to withstand temperatures below 0 °C, therefore, the temperature at its overwintering depth has to be above zero. A cartographic approach to identifying the distribution of zero isotherms was used. Winter soil temperatures at depths of 80 cm, 120 cm, 160 cm and 240 cm were plotted, based on deep soil thermometer data and the outline of the spadefoot’s range was compared with close-to-zero isotherms in deep soil. Within the range of this species, the depth of the position of zero isotherms increases eastwards: from 80 cm in European Russia, to more than 160 cm in the south-west of Western Siberia. The eastern boundary of the species’ range lies in the forest-steppe, steppe and semi-desert zones in the Tobol-Ishim interfluve and further south, on the left bank area of the Turgai River. This boundary clearly coincides with the zero isotherm, which lies here at a depth of 160 cm, forming an impermeable barrier to the spadefoot’s distribution.
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Dufresnes C, Strachinis I, Tzoras E, Litvinchuk SN, Denoël M. Call a spade a spade: taxonomy and distribution of Pelobates, with description of a new Balkan endemic. Zookeys 2019; 859:131-158. [PMID: 31327926 PMCID: PMC6616056 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.859.33634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The genomic era contributes to update the taxonomy of many debated terrestrial vertebrates. In an accompanying work, we provided a comprehensive molecular assessment of spadefoot toads (Pelobates) using genomic data. Our results call for taxonomic updates in this group. First, nuclear phylogenomics confirmed the species-level divergence between the Iberian P.cultripes and its Moroccan relative P.varaldii. Second, we inferred that P.fuscus and P.vespertinus, considered subspecies until recently, feature partial reproductive isolation and thus deserve a specific level. Third, we evidenced cryptic speciation and diversification among deeply diverged lineages collectively known as Pelobatessyriacus. Populations from the Near East correspond to the Eastern spadefoot toad P.syriacus sensu stricto, which is represented by two subspecies, one in the Levant (P.s.syriacus) and the other in the rest of the range (P.s.boettgeri). Populations from southeastern Europe correspond to the Balkan spadefoot toad, P.balcanicus. Based on genetic evidence, this species is also polytypic: the nominal P.b.balcanicus inhabits the Balkan Peninsula; a new subspecies P.b.chloeaessp. nov. appears endemic to the Peloponnese. In this paper, we provide an updated overview of the taxonomy and distribution of all extant Pelobates taxa and describe P.b.chloeaessp. nov.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christophe Dufresnes
- Laboratory for Conservation Biology, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.,Hintermann & Weber SA, Avenue des Alpes 25, 1820 Montreux, Switzerland.,Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Alfred Denny Building, Western Bank, S10 2TN Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Ilias Strachinis
- School of Biology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | | | - Spartak N Litvinchuk
- Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Tikhoretsky pr. 4, St. 194064 Petersburg, Russia.,Department of Zoology and Physiology, Dagestan State University, Gadzhiyev str. 43-a, 336700 Makhachkala, Dagestan, Russia
| | - Mathieu Denoël
- Laboratory of Fish and Amphibian Ethology, Behavioural Biology Group, Freshwater and OCeanic science Unit of reSearch (FOCUS), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
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Dufresnes C, Strachinis I, Suriadna N, Mykytynets G, Cogălniceanu D, Székely P, Vukov T, Arntzen JW, Wielstra B, Lymberakis P, Geffen E, Gafny S, Kumlutaş Y, Ilgaz Ç, Candan K, Mizsei E, Szabolcs M, Kolenda K, Smirnov N, Géniez P, Lukanov S, Crochet PA, Dubey S, Perrin N, Litvinchuk SN, Denoël M. Phylogeography of a cryptic speciation continuum in Eurasian spadefoot toads (Pelobates). Mol Ecol 2019; 28:3257-3270. [PMID: 31254307 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2019] [Revised: 03/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Cryptic phylogeographic diversifications provide unique models to examine the role of phylogenetic divergence on the evolution of reproductive isolation, without extrinsic factors such as ecological and behavioural differentiation. Yet, to date very few comparative studies have been attempted within such radiations. Here, we characterize a new speciation continuum in a group of widespread Eurasian amphibians, the Pelobates spadefoot toads, by conducting multilocus (restriction site associated DNA sequencing and mitochondrial DNA) phylogenetic, phylogeographic and hybrid zone analyses. Within the P. syriacus complex, we discovered species-level cryptic divergences (>5 million years ago [My]) between populations distributed in the Near-East (hereafter P. syriacus sensu stricto [s.s.]) and southeastern Europe (hereafter P. balcanicus), each featuring deep intraspecific lineages. Altogether, we could scale hybridizability to divergence time along six different stages, spanning from sympatry without gene flow (P. fuscus and P. balcanicus, >10 My), parapatry with highly restricted hybridization (P. balcanicus and P. syriacus s.s., >5 My), narrow hybrid zones (~15 km) consistent with partial reproductive isolation (P. fuscus and P. vespertinus, ~3 My), to extensive admixture between Pleistocene and refugial lineages (≤2 My). This full spectrum empirically supports a gradual build up of reproductive barriers through time, reversible up until a threshold that we estimate at ~3 My. Hence, cryptic phylogeographic lineages may fade away or become reproductively isolated species simply depending on the time they persist in allopatry, and without definite ecomorphological divergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christophe Dufresnes
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK.,Hintermann & Weber SA, Montreux, Switzerland.,Laboratory for Conservation Biology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ilias Strachinis
- School of Biology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Nataliia Suriadna
- Melitopol Insitute of Ecology and Social Technologies of University "Ukraine", Melitopol, Zaporizhia, Ukraine
| | | | - Dan Cogălniceanu
- Faculty of Natural Sciences and Agricultural Sciences, University Ovidius Constanţa, Constanţa, Romania
| | - Paul Székely
- Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, EcoSs Lab, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador
| | - Tanja Vukov
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Institute for Biological Research "Siniša Stanković", National Institute of Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Jan W Arntzen
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ben Wielstra
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.,Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Petros Lymberakis
- Natural History Museum of Crete, University of Crete, Irakleio, Crete, Greece
| | - Eli Geffen
- School of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Sarig Gafny
- School of Marine Sciences, Ruppin Academic Center, Michmoret, Israel
| | - Yusuf Kumlutaş
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Dokuz Eylül University, Buca, İzmir, Turkey.,Research and Application Center for Fauna and Flora, Dokuz Eylül University, Buca, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Çetin Ilgaz
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Dokuz Eylül University, Buca, İzmir, Turkey.,Research and Application Center for Fauna and Flora, Dokuz Eylül University, Buca, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Kamil Candan
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Dokuz Eylül University, Buca, İzmir, Turkey.,Research and Application Center for Fauna and Flora, Dokuz Eylül University, Buca, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Edvárd Mizsei
- Department of Tisza River Research, Danube Research Institute, Centre for Ecological Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Márton Szabolcs
- Department of Tisza River Research, Danube Research Institute, Centre for Ecological Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Krzysztof Kolenda
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Conservation of Vertebrates, Institute of Environmental Biology, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Nazar Smirnov
- Department of Nature, Chernivtsi Regional Museum, Chernivtsi, Ukraine
| | - Philippe Géniez
- CEFE, EPHE-PSL, CNRS, University of Montpellier, University Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Simeon Lukanov
- Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Pierre-André Crochet
- CEFE, CNRS, University of Montpellier, University Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Sylvain Dubey
- Hintermann & Weber SA, Montreux, Switzerland.,Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Agrosustain SA, Nyon, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Perrin
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Spartak N Litvinchuk
- Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia.,Department of Zoology and Physiology, Dagestan State University, Makhachkala, Russia
| | - Mathieu Denoël
- Laboratory of Fish and Amphibian Ethology, Behavioural Biology Group, Freshwater and OCeanic science Unit of reSearch (FOCUS), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
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Dufresnes C, Litvinchuk SN, Leuenberger J, Ghali K, Zinenko O, Stöck M, Perrin N. Evolutionary melting pots: a biodiversity hotspot shaped by ring diversifications around the Black Sea in the Eastern tree frog (Hyla orientalis). Mol Ecol 2016; 25:4285-300. [PMID: 27220555 DOI: 10.1111/mec.13706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Revised: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 05/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Hotspots of intraspecific genetic diversity, which are of primary importance for the conservation of species, have been associated with glacial refugia, that is areas where species survived the Quaternary climatic oscillations. However, the proximate mechanisms generating these hotspots remain an open issue. Hotspots may reflect the long-term persistence of large refugial populations; alternatively, they may result from allopatric differentiation between small and isolated populations, that later admixed. Here, we test these two scenarios in a widely distributed species of tree frog, Hyla orientalis, which inhabits Asia Minor and southeastern Europe. We apply a fine-scale phylogeographic survey, combining fast-evolving mitochondrial and nuclear markers, with a dense sampling throughout the range, as well as ecological niche modelling, to understand what shaped the genetic variation of this species. We documented an important diversity centre around the Black Sea, composed of multiple allopatric and/or parapatric diversifications, likely driven by a combination of Pleistocene climatic fluctuations and complex regional topography. Remarkably, this diversification forms a ring around the Black Sea, from the Caucasus through Anatolia and eastern Europe, with terminal forms coming into contact and partially admixing in Crimea. Our results support the view that glacial refugia generate rather than host genetic diversity and can also function as evolutionary melting pots of biodiversity. Moreover, we report a new case of ring diversification, triggered by a large, yet cohesive dispersal barrier, a very rare situation in nature. Finally, we emphasize the Black Sea region as an important centre of intraspecific diversity in the Palearctic with implications for conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christophe Dufresnes
- Department of Ecology & Evolution, University of Lausanne, Biophore Building, Lausanne, 1015, Switzerland
| | - Spartak N Litvinchuk
- Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Tikhoretsky pr. 4, St. Petersburg, 194064, Russia
| | - Julien Leuenberger
- Department of Ecology & Evolution, University of Lausanne, Biophore Building, Lausanne, 1015, Switzerland
| | - Karim Ghali
- Department of Ecology & Evolution, University of Lausanne, Biophore Building, Lausanne, 1015, Switzerland
| | - Oleksandr Zinenko
- The Museum of Nature, V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, Trinkler st. 8, Kharkiv, 61058, Ukraine
| | - Matthias Stöck
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Müggelseedamm 301, Berlin, D-12587, Germany
| | - Nicolas Perrin
- Department of Ecology & Evolution, University of Lausanne, Biophore Building, Lausanne, 1015, Switzerland
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Hawlitschek O, Morinière J, Dunz A, Franzen M, Rödder D, Glaw F, Haszprunar G. Comprehensive DNA barcoding of the herpetofauna of Germany. Mol Ecol Resour 2015; 16:242-53. [DOI: 10.1111/1755-0998.12416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2015] [Revised: 04/14/2015] [Accepted: 04/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- O. Hawlitschek
- Zoologische Staatssammlung (ZSM-SNSB); Münchhausenstrasse 21 81247 München Germany
- Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra); Passeig Maritim de la Barceloneta 37 08003 Barcelona Spain
| | - J. Morinière
- Zoologische Staatssammlung (ZSM-SNSB); Münchhausenstrasse 21 81247 München Germany
| | - A. Dunz
- Zoologische Staatssammlung (ZSM-SNSB); Münchhausenstrasse 21 81247 München Germany
| | - M. Franzen
- Zoologische Staatssammlung (ZSM-SNSB); Münchhausenstrasse 21 81247 München Germany
| | - D. Rödder
- Zoologisches Forschungsmuseum Alexander Koenig; Adenauerallee 160 53113 Bonn Germany
| | - F. Glaw
- Zoologische Staatssammlung (ZSM-SNSB); Münchhausenstrasse 21 81247 München Germany
| | - G. Haszprunar
- Zoologische Staatssammlung (ZSM-SNSB); Münchhausenstrasse 21 81247 München Germany
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Comparative Analysis of Karyotypes of Two Cryptic Species of Pelobatid Frogs (Amphibia, Anura) of Ukraine. VESTNIK ZOOLOGII 2014. [DOI: 10.2478/vzoo-2014-0061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The paper first describes in detail the karyotype of Pelobates vespertinus (Pallas, 1771) in comparison with the karyotype of Pelobates fuscus (Laurenti, 1768). Comparative morphological analysis of chromosomes has shown that these two cryptic species have a symmetrical karyotype consisting of two-armed chromosomes. It has been established that their chromosome sets consist of 7 pairs of large chromosomes and 6 pairs of small ones. The species diff er by the position of the centromere in the chromosomes of the 10th and 11th pairs. The 10th pair of P. fuscus is metacentrics, the 11th pair is submetacentric; the 10th pair of P. vespertinus is submetacentric, and the 11th one is metacentrics. Secondary constrictions are on the short arms of the 7th chromosome pair. The chromosomal formula for both species is 4 meta-(m) + 7 submeta-(sm) + 2 subtelocentrics (st), 2n = 26, N.F. = 52. Absolute length of all the chromosomes in the karyotype of P. fuscus is somewhat larger than that one in the karyotype of P. vespertinus. The parameters of relative length are equivalent on average, but they diff er in individual chromosomes. On the background of established chromosomal differences between the cryptic species, reliable diagnostic features have not been identified.
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Iosif R, Papeş M, Samoilă C, Cogălniceanu D. Climate-induced shifts in the niche similarity of two related spadefoot toads (genus Pelobates). ORG DIVERS EVOL 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s13127-014-0181-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Salvi D, Harris DJ, Kaliontzopoulou A, Carretero MA, Pinho C. Persistence across Pleistocene ice ages in Mediterranean and extra-Mediterranean refugia: phylogeographic insights from the common wall lizard. BMC Evol Biol 2013; 13:147. [PMID: 23841475 PMCID: PMC3711914 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-13-147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pleistocene climatic oscillations have played a major role in structuring present-day biodiversity. The southern Mediterranean peninsulas have long been recognized as major glacial refugia, from where Northern Europe was post-glacially colonized. However, recent studies have unravelled numerous additional refugia also in northern regions. We investigated the phylogeographic pattern of the widespread Western Palaearctic lizard Podarcis muralis, using a range-wide multilocus approach, to evaluate whether it is concordant with a recent expansion from southern glacial refugia or alternatively from a combination of Mediterranean and northern refugia. RESULTS We analyzed DNA sequences of two mitochondrial (cytb and nd4) and three nuclear (acm4, mc1r, and pdc) gene fragments in individuals from 52 localities across the species range, using phylogenetic and phylogeographic methods. The complex phylogeographic pattern observed, with 23 reciprocally monophyletic allo- parapatric lineages having a Pleistocene divergence, suggests a scenario of long-term isolation in multiple ice-age refugia across the species distribution range. Multiple lineages were identified within the three Mediterranean peninsulas - Iberia, Italy and the Balkans - where the highest genetic diversity was observed. Such an unprecedented phylogeographic pattern - here called "refugia within all refugia" - compasses the classical scenario of multiple southern refugia. However, unlike the southern refugia model, various distinct lineages were also found in northern regions, suggesting that additional refugia in France, Northern Italy, Eastern Alps and Central Balkans allowed the long-term persistence of this species throughout Pleistocene glaciations. CONCLUSIONS The phylogeography of Podarcis muralis provides a paradigm of temperate species survival in Mediterranean and extra-Mediterranean glacial refugia. Such refugia acted as independent biogeographic compartments for the long-term persistence of this species, for the differentiation of its genetic lineages, and for the short-distance post-glacial re-colonization of neighbouring areas. This finding echoes previous findings from recent phylogeographic studies on species from temperate ecoregions, thus suggesting the need for a reappraisal of the role of northern refugia for glacial persistence and post-glacial assembly of Holarctic biota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Salvi
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal.
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