Youth Athlete Development and Nutrition

Nutritional perspectives in female soccer: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

The purpose of the review was to evaluate the literature exploring nutritional habits and practices in female soccer players.

METHODS

The PRISMA-ScR Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews were followed. Searches of Web of Science, PubMed and Scopus databases were conducted for studies exploring the nutritional habits and practices of female soccer players.

RESULTS

A total of 72 studies were included in the scoping review. Studies on female soccer players mainly focused on daily energy expenditure, daily energy and macronutrient intake and hydration status. A negative energy balance was consistent across studies, and the ingestion of CHO appears below the current recommendations. Female soccer players are predominately in negative energy balance, which may indicate that they are at risk of low energy availability. A high use of nutritional supplements is apparent in female soccer, whilst a large proportion of players commence training dehydrated.

CONCLUSIONS

The current findings have implications for practitioners relating to the planning, management, monitoring, and implementation of nutritional intake and training and competition schedules.

What nutrition advice is freely available for gymnasts, coaches and parents on their member National Governing Body webpages?

The purpose of this content analysis was to ascertain what nutrition advice or information is freely available on a global scale through each National Governing Body (NGB) webpage. In total, 52 NGBs and the International Federation of Gymnastics (FIG) were identified based on the FIG November 2022 world rankings for both male and female athletes in all disciplines. Concluding observations were that publicly available nutrition advice is limited across the global gymnastics platforms. Conflicting advice was also identified within some organisations surrounding the weighing of gymnasts for hydration purposes and some macronutrient discrepancies thus, potentially impacting the clarity of the message for the reader. Based on this content analysis recommendations for future practice include providing clarity and provision of tools to measure hydration, dietary recommendations should be clear and specific, and a more centralised approach to standardise advice and publicly available information.

Greater Post-Operative Nutrition Risks Identified in Pediatric and Adolescent Patients after Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction Regardless of Age and Sex

Systematic detection of risky nutrition behaviors after sports surgery may better promote healing for return-to-sport. The purpose of this study was to assess nutritional behavior differences between patients following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) and following other lower-extremity orthopedic surgeries. One pediatric sports medicine center was reviewed for a custom Sports Nutrition Assessment for Consultation, which investigates nutrition-related risk factors for youth athletes at their first post-operative visit. Patients reported "Yes" or "No" to eight questions, after which they were offered a nutrition consultation for any response indicating risk. A total of 243 post-ACLR and 242 non-ACLR patients were reviewed. The post-ACLR patients more often reported a change in appetite (p = 0.021), recent weight changes (p = 0.011), a desire to better understand nutrition (p = 0.004), and recommendations to change their body composition (p = 0.032). More post-ACLR patients were identified for a nutrition consultation (p = 0.002), though an equal percentage accepted the consultation between groups. Age and sex were not determined to be significant confounders after matched sub-analysis. The post-ACLR patients more often reported nutrition risks, specifically weight-related issues, regardless of age or sex. Sports surgeons should regularly inquire about nutrition-related concerns with patients and refer to sports dietitians for recovery nutrition support as needed, particularly after ACLR.

Household food insecurity among child and adolescent athletics practitioners: A cross-sectional, descriptive, and exploratory study

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to explore the prevalence of food insecurity among child and adolescent athletics practitioners and to investigate factors associated with exercise performance, dietary habits, body composition, sleep, and socioeconomic status based on food security status.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional, descriptive, and exploratory study conducted in Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil, between June and July 2023. The convenience sample included children and adolescents (7-17 y old) of both sexes. We evaluated exercise performance, household food insecurity (HFI), dietary-related parameters, and other body composition, lifestyle, and social-related variables. Exercise performance was assessed using the counter movement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ), horizontal long jump (HLJ), 50-m sprint test (50-m ST) and throwing strength test (TST). The assessment of HFI was conducted using the food insecurity experience scale (FIES). Comparisons and associations were investigated based on food security status.

RESULTS

The total sample size was comprised of 138 children (n = 42; 30.4%) and adolescents (n = 96; 69.6%). We found an association between food security status and sex (X2(138,1) = 4.42; P = 0.036). SJ was higher in the food security group than in the HFI group (t(117) = 2.112; P = 0.037; ES = 0.39). Sleep- and dietary-related factors did not differ between the groups.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, the prevalence of HFI among child and adolescent athletics participants was approximately 40%. Regarding exercise performance, SJ was better in the food security group than in the HFI group. Concerning dietary-related data, the HFI group had a lower number of meals per day than the food security group, and other dietary data did not differ between the groups. Body composition and sleep-related parameters were similar between the groups.

Trends in Nutrition-Related Risk Factors Identified Post-Operatively in Patients Treated for a Lower-Extremity Injury

This study investigated trends within a custom Sports Nutrition Assessment for Consultation (SNAC) survey designed to identify nutrition-related risk factors among post-operative lower-extremity youth athletes. Athletes aged 8-18 years who completed the SNAC at a sports medicine institution after lower-extremity surgery were reviewed for associations between SNAC questions and age/sex differences. Of 477 patients (15.0 ± 2.0 years; 47.8% female), 319 (66.9%) answered 'yes' to at least one question and were identified for a consult, though 216 (64.3%) declined. The most frequent questions to prompt a consult were a desire to better understand nutrition for recovery (41.5%) and regularly skipping at least one meal a day (29.8%). Inter-question responses were often significantly related, especially regarding appetite changes, weight changes, and/or meal-skipping. While consult acceptance was not significantly different between sex/age, males were more likely to report a desire to better understand nutrition (p = 0.004) and a weight change (p = 0.019), and females were more likely to report struggling with dizziness/fatigue (p < 0.001). Additionally, older athletes reported an appetite change (p = 0.022), meal-skipping (p = 0.002), a desire to better understand nutrition (p < 0.001), a weight change (p < 0.001), and an effort/recommendation to change their body composition/weight (p = 0.005). These findings demonstrate a link between risky nutrition behaviors and physical detriments.

Exploring the Experiences and Perspectives of Division III Athletes Regarding Personalized Nutrition Plans for Improved Performance-A Qualitative Investigation

(1) Background: This qualitative study explores Division III college student-athletes' experiences and perceptions of personalized nutrition plans in collegiate sports settings. (2) Methods: Semi-structured interviews were conducted using a general qualitative research design. Using a grounded theory approach, a thematic analysis was utilized to analyze the interview transcripts, allowing for the identification of recurring themes and patterns. (3) Results: A total of 30 Division III college student-athletes, 16 males (53.3%) and 14 females (46.7%), representing a diverse range of sports disciplines, engaged in discussions about personalized nutrition plans. Analysis of the data revealed five main themes: (1) Nutritional Knowledge and Awareness, (2) Perceived Benefits of Personalized Nutrition Plans, (3) Challenges and Barriers to Implementation, (4) Influence of Team Culture and Environment, and (5) Suggestions for Improvement. (4) Conclusion: This study sheds light on the complexities of implementing personalized nutrition plans in collegiate sports settings and emphasizes the need for comprehensive, athlete-centered approaches to optimize performance and well-being.

Association between weight, weight perception, weight teasing and mental health among adolescents

BACKGROUND

Adolescent mental health problems are becoming increasingly prevalent, and there are correlations between weight-related concerns and adolescent mental health. The aim of this study is to explore the association between three weight-related factors (actual weight, weight perception, and weight teasing) and mental health problems (depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and loneliness) in Chinese adolescents.

METHODS

10,070 adolescents between the ages of 11-18 from schools in Shanghai, China were selected using a stratified random cluster sampling method. Self-reported questionnaires were collected to investigate weight-related factors and mental health problems. Logistic regression analysis was used to examine the relationship.

RESULTS

The prevalence of depressive symptoms, loneliness, mild anxiety symptoms, and moderate to severe anxiety symptoms among adolescents were 18.0%, 53.8%, 26.5%, and 12.3%, respectively, with a higher prevalence found in females. After adjusting for weight perception and weight teasing, actual weight had no harmful impact on adolescents' mental health. Adolescents' perception of being overweight increased the risk of depressive symptoms, loneliness, mild anxiety symptoms, and moderate to severe anxiety symptoms, while the perception of being underweight had a similar but more profound impact (depressive symptoms OR = 1.590, 95% CI: 1.342-1.883; loneliness OR = 1.537, 95% CI: 1.353-1.746; mild anxiety symptoms OR = 1.368, 95% CI: 1.178-1.589; moderate to severe anxiety symptoms OR = 1.780, 95% CI: 1.449-2.186). Experiencing weight teasing more than once a year had a greater effect on adolescents' mental health, especially among adolescents with overweight/obesity (depressive symptoms OR = 2.970, 95% CI: 2.325-3.793; loneliness OR = 3.839, 95% CI: 3.119-4.727; mild anxiety symptoms OR = 2.822, 95% CI: 2.236-3.562; moderate to severe anxiety symptoms OR = 5.212, 95% CI: 3.846-7.065).

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of mental health problems among adolescents was high, especially loneliness. Weight perception and weight teasing, but not the actual weight, independently influenced adolescent mental health.

Primary Care Considerations for the Pediatric Endurance Athlete

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This study aimed to provide an overview of some of the medical concerns surrounding the care of the pediatric endurance athletes and add to the limited literature specific to the pediatric endurance athlete.

RECENT FINDINGS

Endurance athletes are at risk for overtraining, relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S), overuse injuries, nutritional deficiencies, and sleep dysfunction. Youth runners and female endurance athletes are particularly high-risk populations for RED-S; nutritional deficiencies and their care should involve thoughtful mitigation of modifiable risk factors. The growing endurance athlete may experience slightly different cardiac adaptations than the adult endurance athlete with the long-term implications of these changes still unclear. Endurance sports are common among youth athletes. Multidisciplinary care that includes screening and early intervention for high-risk areas is critical to optimize their care and promote, safe lifelong sport participation.

Investigating Nutrition and Hydration Knowledge and Practice among a Cohort of Age-Grade Rugby Union Players

Optimal athletic performance relies on meeting specific nutritional requirements, encompassing adequate calorie intake, macronutrient intake, and hydration. Misinformation or misconceptions about these necessities are prevalent among young athletes. This study investigated nutrition and hydration knowledge and practices among 28 male rugby union players aged 16 to 17, participating in Munster Rugby's 2023 Summer Age-Grade Development Programme, specifically the U18's Schools Squad. The Nutrition for Sport Knowledge Questionnaire assessed nutrition knowledge, while the Hydration Assessment Questionnaire evaluated hydration knowledge. Urinalysis for hydration status utilised urine specific gravity measurements pre-exercise on five separate days (1.018 ± 0.008 Usg). Dietary intake was recorded using a 3-day estimated food intake record on the Libro App, analysed with Nutritics software(Version 9.50). Suboptimal nutrition knowledge (49.6 ± 8.2%) and dietary practices were observed, with incongruent nutrient intakes compared to recommendations for adolescent athletes. While superior hydration knowledge (79.0 (77.3, 83.6) %) was evident, pre-exercise urine specific gravity readings indicated significant variation (p < 0.001) and signs of dehydration (USG > 1.020 Usg). No statistically significant correlations were found between knowledge and practices. The study highlights suboptimal nutrition and hydration knowledge and practices in youth athletes, suggesting the need for tailored support and educational interventions to enhance their overall health and performance. Further investigation into barriers and facilitators to dietary adherence is recommended for more effective interventions.

Triclosan induces earlier puberty onset in female mice via interfering with L-type calcium channels and activating Pik3cd

Triclosan (TCS) is a broad-spectrum antibacterial chemical widely presents in people's daily lives. Epidemiological studies have revealed that TCS exposure may affect female puberty development. However, the developmental toxicity after low-dose TCS continuous exposure remains to be confirmed. In our study, 8-week-old ICR female mice were continuously exposed to TCS (30, 300, 3000 μg/kg/day) or vehicle (corn oil) from 2 weeks before mating to postnatal day 21 (PND 21) of F1 female mice, while F1 female mice were treated with TCS intragastric administration from PND 22 until PND 56. Vaginal opening (VO) observation, hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis related hormones and genes detection, and ovarian transcriptome analysis were carried out to investigate the effects of TCS exposure on puberty onset. Meanwhile, human granulosa-like tumor cell lines (KGN cells) were exposed to TCS to further explore the biological mechanism of the ovary in vitro. The results showed that long-term exposure to low-dose TCS led to approximately a 3-day earlier puberty onset in F1 female mice. Moreover, TCS up-regulated the secretion of estradiol (E2) and the expression of ovarian steroidogenesis genes. Notably, ovarian transcriptomes analysis as well as bidirectional validation in KGN cells suggested that L-type calcium channels and Pik3cd were involved in TCS-induced up-regulation of ovarian-related hormones and genes. In conclusion, our study demonstrated that TCS interfered with L-type calcium channels and activated Pik3cd to up-regulate the expression of ovarian steroidogenesis and related genes, thereby inducing the earlier puberty onset in F1 female mice.

Energy and Macronutrient Intakes in Young Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of differences in energy and macronutrient intakes between young athletes and non-athletes, considering age, gender and sport characteristics. The study included original research articles that compared energy and macronutrient intakes of 8 to 18-year-old athletes to non-athletes. Mean difference (MD) meta-analyses were performed to quantify energy and macronutrient intake differences between athletes and non-athletes. Eighteen observational studies were included. Results revealed that the energy and carbohydrate consumption of athletes was higher than that of non-athletes (MD=4.65kcal/kg/d, p<0.01 and MD=1.65% of total energy intake, p<0.01, respectively). Subgroup analyses revealed a significant effect of total training time on the observed mean differences between athletes and non-athletes. As practice time increased, the differences between athletes and non-athletes increased for carbohydrate and decreased for protein. Sport type analysis revealed a higher protein intake by mixed sport athletes compared to endurance and power sports. Analyses also indicated an age effect: the older the athletes, the smaller the differences between athletes and non-athletes for energy intake. However, the methods used to match groups and estimate dietary intakes forced us to moderate the results. More rigorous research methods are needed to define the dietary intakes of athletes and non-athletes.

Exercise testing for young athletes

With increasing competitiveness across the sporting landscape, there is a need for more research into monitoring and managing the young athlete, as the needs of a young athlete are vastly different to those of an older athlete who is already established in their respective sport. As the age of sports specialisation seems to decrease, exercise testing in the younger cohort of athletes is crucial for safety and long-term success. This article provides a comprehensive summary of available testing and monitoring methods that can be used to assist young athletes as they mature and attempt to excel in their chosen sport.

Sleep, Nutrition, and Injury Risk in Adolescent Athletes: A Narrative Review

This narrative review explores the impact of sleep and nutrition on injury risk in adolescent athletes. Sleep is viewed as essential to the recuperation process and is distinguished as an active participant in recovery through its involvement in growth, repair, regeneration, and immunity. Furthermore, the literature has shown that the sleep of athletes impacts elements of athletic performance including both physical and cognitive performance, recovery, injury risk, and mental well-being. For sleep to have a restorative effect on the body, it must meet an individual's sleep needs whilst also lasting for an adequate duration and being of adequate quality, which is age-dependent. The literature has suggested that athletes have increased sleep needs compared to those of the general population and thus the standard recommendations may not be sufficient for athletic populations. Therefore, a more individualised approach accounting for overall sleep health may be more appropriate for addressing sleep needs in individuals including athletes. The literature has demonstrated that adolescent athletes achieve, on average, ~6.3 h of sleep, demonstrating a discrepancy between sleep recommendations (8-10 h) and actual sleep achieved. Sleep-wake cycles undergo development during adolescence whereby adaptation occurs in sleep regulation during this phase. These adaptations increase sleep pressure tolerance and are driven by the maturation of physiological, psychological, and cognitive functioning along with delays in circadian rhythmicity, thus creating an environment for inadequate sleep during adolescence. As such, the adolescent period is a phase of rapid growth and maturation that presents multiple challenges to both sleep and nutrition; consequently, this places a significant burden on an adolescent athletes' ability to recover, thus increasing the likelihood of injury. Therefore, this article aims to provide a comprehensive review of the available literature on the importance of sleep and nutrition interactions in injury risk in adolescent athletes. Furthermore, it provides foundations for informing further investigations exploring the relation of sleep and nutrition interactions to recovery during adolescence.

Evaluation of Validity and Reliability of a German General and Sports Nutrition Knowledge Questionnaire for Athletes and Coaches (GSNKQ-AC)

Despite the availability of nutritional recommendations, studies have reported inadequate nutrition in athletes. The existing literature highlights the importance of the nutritional knowledge of both athletes and coaches in influencing athletes' food choices and behavior, as well as its direct and indirect impact on athletes' performance and health. To adequately assess nutritional knowledge, monitoring via valid and reliable questionnaires is required. As no questionnaire tailored to German-speaking athletes and coaches exists, this study aimed at developing a new General and Sports Nutritional Knowledge Questionnaire for Athletes and Coaches (GSNKQ-AC). The development followed a literature-based, ten-step validation approach. The initial questionnaire (63 items) was revised and reduced to 29 items in the final version after conducting construct verification in the target group (n = 84 athletes and coaches), evaluating content validity by a panel of nutrition experts (n = 8), verifying face validity by think-out-loud interviews in the target group (n = 7), and conducting classical test theory for item reduction analysis (n = 53). For the final GSNKQ-AC, internal consistency, calculated as Cronbach's alpha, was 0.87. Students with a focus on sports nutrition (n = 31) scored significantly higher than athletes and coaches (n = 53), revealing good construct validity (77% vs. 62%, p < 0.001). Test-retest reliability (n = 42, matched pairs) showed a Spearman's correlation coefficient of r = 0.61 (p < 0.01). The brief GSNKQ-AC can be used for status quo or longitudinal assessment of nutritional knowledge among athletes and coaches to reveal gaps and ensure purposeful planning of educational interventions.

Psychometric properties of the Sport Anxiety Scale-2 for Chinese adolescent athletes taking the National Sports College Entrance Examination

Background

This study aims to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2) in Chinese adolescent sports exam candidates.

Methods

One day before the National Sports College Entrance Examination, 965 Chinese athletes rated the Chinese-language SAS-2. Confirmatory factor analysis was performed to test the three-factor structure. Factorial invariance was tested by comparing the configural invariance model to three more constrained models. Construct validity and reliability were determined.

Results

Fit indices meet the critical values: CFI = 0.953, TLI = 0.943, RMSEA = 0.048 [90% CI, 0.041-0.054], and SRMR = 0.042. All path factor loadings exceed 0.5. The changes in CFI and RMSEA across the configural, metric, scalar, and uniqueness invariance are within the critical values, demonstrating strict measurement invariance across gender, years of training, and type of sports. The average variance extracted of the worry sub-scale is above the cutoff criteria, and McDonald's omega coefficients are over 0.70. Significant correlations exist between the SAS-2, SCAT, and CSAI-2. Factor correlations are all below 0.8. The measurement also distinguishes the known gender effect, with females showing a probability of 58.6% higher anxiety levels. The intraclass correlation coefficient ranges from 0.706 to 0.801.

Conclusion

This study validated the Chinese-language SAS-2 in measuring competitive anxiety among Chinese adolescent athletes taking the National Sports College Entrance Examination. The development of the scale's applicability in China is discussed.

Room for Improvement in Sports Nutrition Knowledge amongst Parents and Caregivers of Male Academy Soccer Players in the UK: A Cross-Sectional Study

In professional soccer clubs in the UK, nutrition support is often polarised towards senior players or those in the senior academy age groups seeking first team selection/involvement. Accordingly, there is an increased reliance on parents and caregivers to provide support regarding nutritional intake. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the quality of nutrition knowledge of parents and caregivers of male youth soccer players within developmental academies in the UK. Across a single competitive season, 360 registered parents and caregivers of male soccer players from English Premier League under 9-11 (Foundation Phase) and under 12-16 (Youth Development Phase) age group academies completed an online version of the 88-item validated Nutrition for Sport Knowledge Questionnaire. Nutrition knowledge scores were classified as "poor" (43 ± 23%). Nutrition knowledge scores were significantly greater in respondents with dependents representing Category 1 (45 ± 13%) vs. Category 2 (39 ± 15%) academies and in Foundation Phase (44 ± 13%) vs. Youth Development Phase (41 ± 15%). These results demonstrate that there is room for improvement in the nutrition knowledge levels of parents and caregivers of male soccer academy players. We recommend that club academies provide appropriate resources towards nutritional education for parents and caregivers.

Adherence to the Mediterranean diet in young male soccer players

INTRODUCTION

Nutrition is vital in health and sports performance by improving anthropometric-related parameters and dietary habits, especially in the youngest ages. The Mediterranean diet (MD) has been highly recognized for its positive health effects and low adverse environmental impact.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to characterize adherence to the MD and analyze its association with anthropometric parameters in young soccer players.

METHODOLOGY

In the present study, 132 male young soccer players from under 9 to under 15 categories (aged 7 to 15 years) from a Portuguese football club participated. The Mediterranean Diet Quality Index for Children and Adolescents (KIDMED) questionnaire was applied to assess adherence to the MD. Anthropometric-related parameters, including body mass, height, triceps skinfold thickness (TSKF), suprailiac skinfold thickness (SISKF), body mass index (BMI) and body fat percentage (%BF), were determined. The differences between groups were performed accordingly to normal and non-normal distribution. Spearman's correlations were performed to analyze the hypothetical correlation between KIDMED and BMI.

RESULTS

Players reached an average KIDMED score of 8.36 ± 1.92, showing that 68.2% (n = 90) reached high adherence to the MD, 31.1% (n = 41) had moderate adherence to the MD, and 0.78% (n = 1) had poor adherence to the MD. When the analysis was made for age group and BMI classification, no significant differences were observed in adherence to the MD. Considering the main characteristics of the MD, 50.8% consumed fruit (vs. 49,2%), 52.3% consumed vegetables (vs. 47,7%), and only 20% consumed oleaginous dried fruits (vs. 80%). Dairy consumption throughout the day was 49,2% (vs. no: 50,8%).

CONCLUSION

Data from the present study showed that many soccer players adhered to the MD, and no differences were observed for age group or BMI classification.

Best practice recommendations for body composition considerations in sport to reduce health and performance risks: a critical review, original survey and expert opinion by a subgroup of the IOC consensus on Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs)

BACKGROUND

The assessment of body composition (BC) in sport raises concern for athlete health, especially where an overfocus on being lighter or leaner increases the risk of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) and disordered eating.

METHODS

We undertook a critical review of the effect of BC on performance (29 longitudinal, prospective or intervention studies) and explored current practice related to BC considerations via a follow-up to a 2013 internationally distributed survey.

RESULTS

The review found that a higher level of body fat was negatively associated with endurance performance, while a gain in muscle mass resulted in performance benefits across sports. BC did not contribute to early talent identification, and no unique cut-off to signify a performance advantage for BC was identified. BC appears to be one of an array of variables impacting performance, and its influence should not be overstated. The survey (125 practitioners, 61 sports and 26 countries) showed subtle changes in BC considerations over time, such as an increased role for sport dietitian/nutrition practitioners as BC measurers (2013: 54%, 2022: 78%); less emphasis on reporting of body fat percentage (2013: 68%, 2022: 46%) and reduced frequency of BC assessment if ≥every fourth week (2013: 18%, 2022: 5%). Respondents remained concerned about a problematic focus on BC (2013: 69%, 2022: 78%). To address these findings, we provide detailed recommendations for BC considerations, including an overview of preferable BC methodology.

CONCLUSIONS

The 'best practice' guidelines stress the importance of a multidisciplinary athlete health and performance team, and the treatment of BC data as confidential medical information. The guidelines provide a health focus around BC, aiming to reduce the associated burden of disordered eating, problematic low energy availability and REDs.

Iron deficiency in young basketball players: Is a 100 μg/L ferritin cut-off appropriate for iron supplementation?: Results of a randomized placebo-controlled study

BACKGROUND

Iron deficiency (ID) is one of the most common factors that may reduce sports performance, supplementation forms and doses are still not standardized in athletes. Our aim was to assess the iron status of young male basketball players and to study the effect of iron supplementation in a randomized placebo-controlled study.

HYPOTHESIS

We hypothesized that due to the higher iron demand of athletes, the 100 μg/L ferritin cut-off may be appropriate to determine the non-anemic ID.

METHODS

During a sports cardiology screening, questionnaires, laboratory tests, electrocardiograms, echocardiography exams, and cardiopulmonary exercise tests were performed. Athletes with ID (ferritin <100 μg/L) were randomized into iron and placebo groups. Ferrous sulfate (containing 100 mg elemental iron [II] and 60 mg ascorbic acid) or placebo (50 mg vitamin C) was administered for 3 months. All exams were repeated after the supplementation period.

RESULTS

We included 65 (age 15.8 ± 1.7 years) basketball players divided into four age groups. Non-anemic ID was observed in 60 (92%) athletes. After supplementation, ferritin levels were higher in the iron group (75.5 ± 25.9 vs. 54.9 ± 10.4 μg/L, p < .01). Ferritin >100 μg/L level was achieved only in 15% of the athletes. There were no differences in performance between the groups (VO2 max: 53.6 ± 4.3 vs. 54.4 ± 5.7 mL/kg/min, p = .46; peak lactate: 9.1 ± 2.2 vs. 9.1 ± 2.6 mmol/L, p = .90).

CONCLUSIONS

As a result of the 3-month iron supplementation, the ferritin levels increased; however, only a small portion of the athletes achieved the target ferritin level, while performance improvement was not detectable.

The Comparison of Disordered Eating, Body Image, Sociocultural and Coach-Related Pressures in Athletes across Age Groups and Groups of Different Weight Sensitivity in Sports

The aim of the present study was to compare disordered eating (DE), body image, and sociocultural and coach-related pressures between athletes of different age groups (adolescents and adults) and between athletes participating in weight-sensitive (WS) and less WS groups. A total of 1003 athletes participated in this study. The age range of the sample was 15 to 44 years, and the mean age was 18.9 ± 5.8 years (51.3% were female). Athletes who voluntarily agreed to participate in the study were provided with the study measures on DE, body image and sociocultural attitudes towards appearance. Vomiting, laxative misuse and excessive exercise were more prevalent in adolescent female athletes than adults, while dietary restraint was more common in adult male athletes than adolescents. Adolescent female athletes experienced higher sociocultural (family, peers) and sport-related (coach) pressures and a less positive body image compared with adult female athletes. Adult male athletes experienced higher overweight preoccupation, more DE and unhealthy eating habits, and engaged in more frequent self-weighing behaviour compared with adolescent males. When the effect of weight sensitivity in sports was tested, a higher prevalence of DE and overweight preoccupation, more frequent self-weighing, and higher body-image-related pressure from coaches were observed in female athletes participating in aesthetic weight-sensitive (WS) sports as compared with those participating in less WS sports. No differences in positive body image were observed in female WS and less WS sports. Special DE prevention and positive body image promotion programs are necessary for female competitive athletes and parents of adolescent female athletes, especially those participating in aesthetic ones. For adult male athletes, special programs aiming to promote healthy eating should be implemented to prevent DE and body image concerns. Special education about DE prevention is compulsory for coaches who train female athletes.

Iron Deficiency and Anemia in Male and Female Adolescent Athletes Who Engage in Ball Games

The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of iron deficiency (ID) and iron deficiency anemia (IDA) among male adolescent athletes who participate in non-calorie-restricting sports, and to compare the results with female athletes of the same age and sports. Data of the hemoglobin concentration (Hb) and serum ferritin (sFer) levels of male (n = 350) and female (n = 126) basketball and football players, aged 11-18, from two sport medicine centers in Israel were gathered and analyzed. Mild ID was defined as sFer ≤ 30 µg/L, moderate as sFer ≤ 20 µg/L, and severe as sFer ≤ 10 µg/L. IDA was defined as sFer ≤ 20 µg/L and Hb < 13 g/dL for males and sFer ≤ 20 µg/L and Hb < 12 g/dL for females. The prevalence of mild ID was 41.1% and 53.2%, moderate was 17.4% and 27.8%, and severe was 2% and 4.8% in males and females, respectively. The prevalence of IDA was 2.6% in males and 4% in females. Mild and moderate ID was significantly higher among females. In conclusion, non-anemic ID, which is known to be common among female athletes, especially in sports requiring leanness, is also highly prevalent among adolescent males playing ball games. Therefore, screening for hemoglobin and sFer is recommended for young athletes of both genders and in all sports.

A Proposed Conceptual Sport Nutrition Approach for Athlete Development and Assessment: The Athlete Nutrition Development Approach

Appropriate dietary intake can improve athletes' health and sport performance and is a direct result of eating behaviours. Therefore, assessing and shaping athletes' eating behaviours and dietary intake is critical to the provision of sport nutrition services. As such, nutrition practitioners must also consider the determinants of eating behaviours. However, dietary intake, eating behaviours, and its determinants are inconsistently defined in the literature, requiring nutrition practitioners to navigate a complicated landscape of concepts and terminology. This is further complicated by limitations in practically measuring and influencing eating behaviours and dietary intake. The proposed Athlete Nutrition Development Approach was developed to aid practitioners in servicing decisions through the athlete development process, through a three-tiered approach to sport nutrition service delivery. Tier 1 addresses the determinants of eating behaviours, Tier 2 directly addresses eating behaviours and dietary intake, and Tier 3 addresses the consequences of dietary intake in relation to health and sport performance. Each tier includes tools for assessment and development.

Dietary Intake of Young Male Ice Hockey Players 10-13 Years of Age during a Week-Long Hockey Camp

This study recorded the dietary intakes of young male ice hockey players (10-13 year (yr)) for 3 consecutive days while participating in a 5-day summer hockey camp. Players were categorized as older children (OC, n = 10; 10.7 ± 0.2 yr; 37.1 ± 1.5 kg; 147.9 ± 2.1 cm) and young adolescents (YA, n = 10; 12.9 ± 0.1 yr; 45.2 ± 1.5 kg; 157.0 ± 2.4 cm). Players consumed their usual daily intakes. Parents recorded food intake in the mornings and evenings, while the researchers recorded food intake at camp. Energy intake was higher in both groups when compared to data for age-matched young Canadian (CDN) males (OC, 2967 ± 211 vs. 2000 kcal/day; YA, 2773 ± 91 vs. 2250 kcal/day). Carbohydrate (CHO) (OC, 11.2 ± 0.8 vs. YO, 8.9 ± 0.5 g/kg body mass/day) and protein (OC, 3.2 ± 0.3; YO, 2.4 ± 0.1 g/kg/day) intakes were higher than reported for young CDN males (CHO, 3.6 and protein, 1.0 g/kg/day) and were within the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR; CHO, 56 ± 2.3; 57.4 ± 0.8%; protein, 16.1 ± 1.0; 15.7 ± 0.7%). Fat intake was also within the AMDR in both groups (OC, 29.8 ± 1.6%; YA, 28.3 ± 1.0%). Micronutrient intake was adequate except for Vitamin D intakes that were below the recommended 15 ug/day at 6.3 ± 0.7 (OC) and 5.0 ± 1.5 ug/day (YA). In summary, energy and macronutrient intakes of the OC (10-11 yr) and YA (12-13 yr) players were high and well above the age matched CDN norms. The older children had higher energy intakes/kg body mass than the young adolescents. Higher energy intakes allowed for micronutrients intakes to be met in these young active males, except for vitamin D intake.

Kinect and Few-Shot Technology-Based Simulation of Physical Fitness and Health Training Model for Basketball Players in Plateau Area

Players in modern basketball have a lot of physical contact, a lot of bumps, and a lot of physical struggles. The competition for the ball, whether in the air or on the ground, is fierce, putting higher demands on the players' physical abilities. Coaches frequently use plateau physical training, which is very effective in developing athletes' cardiopulmonary function, among many other training methods. The proportional length and active area of arms are obtained using the skin color model of the human body, the angle and posture information of each joint is extracted from dynamics, and the 3D posture of arms and dynamic arms is trained and recognized in this paper, which is based on Kinect. The findings revealed that mild hypoxia in the plateau significantly lowered basketball players' performance and that basketball players' maximum heart rate and 1-minute heart rate recovery in high-intensity exercise were lower than those in flat area training.

Hydration Status and Fluid Replacement Strategies of High-Performance Adolescent Athletes: An Application of Machine Learning to Distinguish Hydration Characteristics

There are limited data on the fluid balance characteristics and fluid replenishment behaviors of high-performance adolescent athletes. The heterogeneity of hydration status and practices of adolescent athletes warrant efficient approaches to individualizing hydration strategies. This study aimed to evaluate and characterize the hydration status and fluid balance characteristics of high-performance adolescent athletes and examine the differences in fluid consumption behaviors during training. In total, 105 high-performance adolescent athletes (male: 66, female: 39; age 14.1 ± 1.0 y) across 11 sports had their hydration status assessed on three separate occasions—upon rising and before a low and a high-intensity training session (pre-training). The results showed that 20–44% of athletes were identified as hypohydrated, with 21–44% and 15–34% of athletes commencing low- and high-intensity training in a hypohydrated state, respectively. Linear mixed model (LMM) analyses revealed that athletes who were hypohydrated consumed more fluid (F (1.183.85)) = 5.91, (p = 0.016). Additional K-means cluster analyses performed highlighted three clusters: “Heavy sweaters with sufficient compensatory hydration habits,” “Heavy sweaters with insufficient compensatory hydration habits” and “Light sweaters with sufficient compensatory hydration habits”. Our results highlight that high-performance adolescent athletes with ad libitum drinking have compensatory mechanisms to replenish fluids lost from training. The approach to distinguish athletes by hydration characteristics could assist practitioners in prioritizing future hydration intervention protocols.