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Saberi RA, Stoler J, Gilna GP, Turpin AG, Huerta CT, Ramsey WA, O'Neil CF, Meizoso JP, Brady AC, Hogan AR, Ford HR, Perez EA, Sola JE, Thorson CM. Pediatric Pedestrian Injuries: Striking Too Close to Home. J Pediatr Surg 2023; 58:1809-1815. [PMID: 37121883 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2023.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pediatric pedestrian injuries (PPI) are a major public health concern. This study utilized geospatial analysis to characterize the risk and injury severity of PPI. METHODS A retrospective chart review of PPI patients (age < 18) from a level 1 trauma center was performed (2013-2020). A geographic information system geocoded injury location to home and other public landmarks. Incidents were aggregated to zip codes and the Local Indicators of Spatial Association statistic tested for spatial clustering of injury rates per 10,000 children. Predictors for increased injury severity were assessed by logistic regression. RESULTS PPI encompassed 6% (n = 188) of pediatric traumas. Most patients were black (54%), male (58%), >13 years (56%), and with Medicaid insurance (68%). Nine zip codes comprised a statistically significant cluster of PPI. Nearly half (40%) occurred within a quarter mile of home; 7% occurred at home. Most (65%) PPI occurred within 1 mile of a school, and 45% occurred within a quarter mile of a park. Nearly all (99%) PPI occurred within a quarter mile of a major intersection and/or roadway. Using admission to ICU as a marker for injury severity, farther distance from home (OR 1.060, 95% CI 1.001-1.121, p = 0.045) and age <13 years (3.662, 95% CI 1.854-7.231, p < 0.001) were independent predictors of injury severity. CONCLUSIONS There are significant sociodemographic disparities in PPI. Most injuries occur near patients' homes and other public landmarks. Multidisciplinary injury prevention collaboration can help inform policymakers, direct local safety programs, and provide a model for PPI prevention at the national level. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level IV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca A Saberi
- DeWitt Daughtry Family Department of Surgery, Division of Pediatric Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA; Ryder Trauma Center at Jackson Memorial Hospital, Miami, FL, USA.
| | - Justin Stoler
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Department of Geography and Sustainable Development, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - Gareth P Gilna
- DeWitt Daughtry Family Department of Surgery, Division of Pediatric Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA; Ryder Trauma Center at Jackson Memorial Hospital, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Alexa G Turpin
- Department of Surgery, New York-Presbyterian Weill Cornell Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Carlos T Huerta
- DeWitt Daughtry Family Department of Surgery, Division of Pediatric Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Walter A Ramsey
- DeWitt Daughtry Family Department of Surgery, Division of Pediatric Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA; Ryder Trauma Center at Jackson Memorial Hospital, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Christopher F O'Neil
- DeWitt Daughtry Family Department of Surgery, Division of Pediatric Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA; Ryder Trauma Center at Jackson Memorial Hospital, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Jonathan P Meizoso
- Ryder Trauma Center at Jackson Memorial Hospital, Miami, FL, USA; DeWitt Daughtry Family Department of Surgery, Division of Trauma and Surgical Critical Care, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Ann-Christina Brady
- DeWitt Daughtry Family Department of Surgery, Division of Pediatric Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Anthony R Hogan
- DeWitt Daughtry Family Department of Surgery, Division of Pediatric Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Henri R Ford
- DeWitt Daughtry Family Department of Surgery, Division of Pediatric Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Eduardo A Perez
- DeWitt Daughtry Family Department of Surgery, Division of Pediatric Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Juan E Sola
- DeWitt Daughtry Family Department of Surgery, Division of Pediatric Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Chad M Thorson
- DeWitt Daughtry Family Department of Surgery, Division of Pediatric Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
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De Cos Guerra O, Castillo Salcines V, Cantarero Prieto D. Are spatial patterns of Covid-19 changing? Spatiotemporal analysis over four waves in the region of Cantabria, Spain. TRANSACTIONS IN GIS : TG 2022; 26:1981-2003. [PMID: 35601792 PMCID: PMC9115338 DOI: 10.1111/tgis.12919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This research approaches the empirical study of the pandemic from a social science perspective. The main goal is to reveal spatiotemporal changes in Covid-19, at regional scale, using GIS technologies and the emerging three-dimensional bins method. We analyze a case study of the region of Cantabria (northern Spain) based on 29,288 geocoded positive Covid-19 cases in the four waves from the outset in March 2020 to June 2021. Our results suggest three main spatial processes: a reversal in the spatial trend, spreading first followed by contraction in the third and fourth waves; then the reduction of hot spots that represent problematic areas because of high presence of cases and growing trends; and finally, an increase in cold spots. All this generates relevant knowledge to help policy-makers from regional governments to design efficient containment and mitigation strategies. Our research is conducted from a geoprevention perspective, based on the application of targeted measures depending on spatial patterns of Covid-19 in real time. It represents an opportunity to reduce the socioeconomic impact of global containment measures in pandemic management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga De Cos Guerra
- Department of Geography, Urban and Regional PlanningUniversidad de CantabriaSantanderSpain
- Research Group on Health Economics and Health Services Management—Marqués de Valdecilla Research Institute (IDIVAL)SantanderSpain
| | - Valentín Castillo Salcines
- Department of Geography, Urban and Regional PlanningUniversidad de CantabriaSantanderSpain
- Research Group on Health Economics and Health Services Management—Marqués de Valdecilla Research Institute (IDIVAL)SantanderSpain
| | - David Cantarero Prieto
- Research Group on Health Economics and Health Services Management—Marqués de Valdecilla Research Institute (IDIVAL)SantanderSpain
- Department of EconomicsUniversidad de CantabriaSantanderSpain
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Walker CJ, Browning SR, Levy JE, Christian WJ. Geocoding precision of birth records from 2008 to 2017 in Kentucky, USA. GEOSPATIAL HEALTH 2022; 17. [PMID: 35532018 DOI: 10.4081/gh.2022.1020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Maternal address information captured on birth records is increasingly used to estimate residential environmental exposures during pregnancy. However, there has been limited assessment of the geocoding precision of birth records, particularly since the adoption of the 2003 standard birth certificate in 2015. To address this gap, this study evaluated the geocoding precision of live and stillbirth records of Kentucky residents over ten years, from 2008 through 2017. This study summarized the demographic characteristics of imprecisely geocoded records and, using a bivariate logistic regression, identified covariates associated with poor geocoding precision among three population density designations-metro, non-metro, and rural. We found that in metro areas, after adjusting for area deprivation, education, and the race, age and education of both parents, records for Black mothers had 48% lower odds of imprecise geocoding (aOR=0.52, 95% CI: 0.48, 0.56), while Black women in rural areas had 96% higher odds of imprecise geocoding (aOr=1.96, 95% CI: 1.68, 2.28). This study also found that over the study period, rural and non-metro areas began with a high proportion of imprecisely geocoded records (38% in rural areas, 19% in non-metro), but both experienced an 8% decline in imprecisely geocoded records over the study period (aOr=0.92, 95% CI: 0.92, 0.94). This study shows that, while geocoding precision has improved in Kentucky, further work is needed to improve geocoding in rural areas and address racial and ethnic disparities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney J Walker
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Kentucky, College of Public Health, Lexington, KY.
| | - Steven R Browning
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Kentucky, College of Public Health, Lexington, KY.
| | | | - W Jay Christian
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Kentucky, College of Public Health, Lexington, KY.
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De Cos O, Castillo-Salcines VN, Cantarero-Prieto D. A geographical information system model to define COVID-19 problem areas with an analysis in the socio-economic context at the regional scale in the North of Spain. GEOSPATIAL HEALTH 2022; 17. [PMID: 35735944 DOI: 10.4081/gh.2022.1067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The work presented concerns the spatial behaviour of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) at the regional scale and the socio-economic context of problem areas over the 2020-2021 period. We propose a replicable geographical information systems (GIS) methodology based on geocodification and analysis of COVID-19 microdata registered by health authorities of the Government of Cantabria, Spain from the beginning of the pandemic register (29th February 2020) to 2nd December 2021. The spatial behaviour of the virus was studied using ArcGIS Pro and a 1x1 km vector grid as the homogeneous reference layer. The GIS analysis of 45,392 geocoded cases revealed a clear process of spatial contraction of the virus after the spread in 2020 with 432 km2 of problem areas reduced to 126.72 km2 in 2021. The socio-economic framework showed complex relationships between COVID-19 cases and the explanatory variables related to household characteristics, socio-economic conditions and demographic structure. Local bivariate analysis showed fuzzier results in persistent hotspots in urban and peri-urban areas. Questions about ‘where, when and how’ contribute to learning from experience as we must draw inspiration from, and explore connections to, those confronting the issues related to the current pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga De Cos
- Department of Geography, Urban and Regional Planning, Universidad de Cantabria; Research Group on Health Economics and Health Services Management - Marques de Valdecilla Research Institute (IDIVAL), Santander.
| | - Valentà N Castillo-Salcines
- Department of Geography, Urban and Regional Planning, Universidad de Cantabria; Research Group on Health Economics and Health Services Management - Marques de Valdecilla Research Institute (IDIVAL), Santander.
| | - David Cantarero-Prieto
- Research Group on Health Economics and Health Services Management - Marques de Valdecilla Research Institute (IDIVAL); Department of Economics, Universidad de Cantabria, Santander.
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Ladoy A, Opota O, Carron PN, Guessous I, Vuilleumier S, Joost S, Greub G. Size and duration of COVID-19 clusters go along with a high SARS-CoV-2 viral load: A spatio-temporal investigation in Vaud state, Switzerland. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 787:147483. [PMID: 34000545 PMCID: PMC8123367 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
To understand the geographical and temporal spread of SARS-CoV-2 during the first documented wave of infection in the state of Vaud, Switzerland, we analyzed clusters of positive cases using the precise residential location of 33,651 individuals tested (RT-PCR) between January 10 and June 30, 2020. We used a prospective Poisson space-time scan statistic (SaTScan) and a Modified Space-Time Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Application with Noise (MST-DBSCAN) to identify both space-time and transmission clusters, and estimated cluster duration, transmission behavior (emergence, growth, reduction, etc.) and relative risk. For each cluster, we computed the number of individuals, the median age of individuals and their viral load. Among the 1684 space-time clusters identified, 457 (27.1%) were significant (p ≤ 0.05), such that they harbored a higher relative risk of infection within the cluster than compared to regions outside the cluster. Clusters lasted a median of 11 days (IQR 7-13) and included a median of 12 individuals per cluster (IQR 5-20). The majority of significant clusters (n = 260; 56.9%) had at least one person with an extremely high viral load (>1 billion copies/ml). Those clusters were considerably larger (median of 17 infected individuals, p < 0.001) than clusters with individuals showing a viral load below 1 million copies/ml (median of three infected individuals). The highest viral loads were found in clusters with the lowest average age group considered in the investigation, while clusters with the highest average age had low to middle viral load. In 20 significant clusters, the viral load of the three first cases was below 100,000 copies/ml, suggesting that subjects with fewer than 100,000 copies/ml may still be contagious. Notably, the dynamics of transmission clusters made it possible to identify three diffusion zones, which predominantly differentiated between rural and urban areas, the latter being more prone to persistence and expansion, which may result in the emergence of new clusters nearby. The use of geographic information is key for public health decision makers in mitigating the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. This study suggests that early localization of clusters may help implement targeted protective measures limiting the spread of the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anaïs Ladoy
- Laboratory of Geographic Information Systems (LASIG), School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland; Group of Geographic Information Research and Analysis in Population Health (GIRAPH), Switzerland
| | - Onya Opota
- Institute of Microbiology, University Hospital Centre and University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Pierre-Nicolas Carron
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital, Rue du Bugnon 46, CH-1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Idris Guessous
- Laboratory of Geographic Information Systems (LASIG), School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland; Division and Department of Primary Care Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland; Group of Geographic Information Research and Analysis in Population Health (GIRAPH), Switzerland
| | - Séverine Vuilleumier
- La Source School of Nursing, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland (HES-SO), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Stéphane Joost
- Laboratory of Geographic Information Systems (LASIG), School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland; La Source School of Nursing, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland (HES-SO), Lausanne, Switzerland; Unit of Population Epidemiology, Division of Primary Care, Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland; Group of Geographic Information Research and Analysis in Population Health (GIRAPH), Switzerland.
| | - Gilbert Greub
- Institute of Microbiology, University Hospital Centre and University of Lausanne, Switzerland; Infectious Diseases Service, University Hospital Centre, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Differencing the Risk of Reiterative Spatial Incidence of COVID-19 Using Space–Time 3D Bins of Geocoded Daily Cases. ISPRS INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEO-INFORMATION 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/ijgi10040261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The space–time behaviour of COVID-19 needs to be analysed from microdata to understand the spread of the virus. Hence, 3D space–time bins and analysis of associated emerging hotspots are useful methods for revealing the areas most at risk from the pandemic. To implement these methods, we have developed the SITAR Fast Action Territorial Information System using ESRI technologies. We first modelled emerging hotspots of COVID-19 geocoded cases for the region of Cantabria (Spain), then tested the predictive potential of the method with the accumulated cases for two months ahead. The results reveal the difference in risk associated with areas with COVID-19 cases. The study not only distinguishes whether a bin is statistically significant, but also identifies temporal trends: a reiterative pattern is detected in 58.31% of statistically significant bins (most with oscillating behaviour over the period). In the testing method phase, with positive cases for two months ahead, we found that only 7.37% of cases were located outside the initial 3D bins. Furthermore, 83.02% of new cases were in statistically significant previous emerging hotspots. To our knowledge, this is the first study to show the usefulness of the 3D bins and GIS emerging hotspots model of COVID-19 microdata in revealing strategic patterns of the pandemic for geoprevention plans.
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De Ridder D, Sandoval J, Vuilleumier N, Stringhini S, Spechbach H, Joost S, Kaiser L, Guessous I. Geospatial digital monitoring of COVID-19 cases at high spatiotemporal resolution. Lancet Digit Health 2020; 2:e393-e394. [PMID: 33328043 PMCID: PMC7832151 DOI: 10.1016/s2589-7500(20)30139-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David De Ridder
- Geneva University Hospitals, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland; Laboratory of Geographic Information Systems, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - José Sandoval
- Geneva University Hospitals, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | - Stéphane Joost
- Geneva University Hospitals, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland; Laboratory of Geographic Information Systems, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Idris Guessous
- Geneva University Hospitals, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland; Laboratory of Geographic Information Systems, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
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Saran S, Singh P, Kumar V, Chauhan P. Review of Geospatial Technology for Infectious Disease Surveillance: Use Case on COVID-19. JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN SOCIETY OF REMOTE SENSING 2020; 48. [PMCID: PMC7433774 DOI: 10.1007/s12524-020-01140-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
This paper discusses on the increasing relevancy of geospatial technologies such as geographic information system (GIS) in the public health domain, particularly for the infectious disease surveillance and modelling strategies. Traditionally, the disease mapping tasks have faced many challenges—(1) authors rarely documented the evidence that were used to create map, (2) before evolution of GIS, many errors aroused in mapping tasks which were expanded extremely at global scales, and (3) there were no fidelity assessment of maps which resulted in inaccurate precision. This study on infectious diseases geo-surveillance is divided into four broad sections with emphasis on handling geographical and temporal issues to help in public health decision-making and planning policies: (1) geospatial mapping of diseases using its spatial and temporal information to understand their behaviour across geography; (2) the citizen’s involvement as volunteers in giving health and disease data to assess the critical situation for disease’s spread and prevention in neighbourhood effect; (3) scientific analysis of health-related behaviour using mathematical epidemiological and geo-statistical approaches with (4) capacity building program. To illustrate each theme, recent case studies are cited and case studies are performed on COVID-19 to demonstrate selected models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sameer Saran
- Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Indian Space Research Organisation, #4, Kalidas Road, Dehradun, 248001 India
| | - Priyanka Singh
- Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Indian Space Research Organisation, #4, Kalidas Road, Dehradun, 248001 India
| | - Vishal Kumar
- Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Indian Space Research Organisation, #4, Kalidas Road, Dehradun, 248001 India
| | - Prakash Chauhan
- Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Indian Space Research Organisation, #4, Kalidas Road, Dehradun, 248001 India
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Toms R, Mayne DJ, Feng X, Bonney A. Geographic variation in cardiometabolic risk distribution: A cross-sectional study of 256,525 adult residents in the Illawarra-Shoalhaven region of the NSW, Australia. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0223179. [PMID: 31574124 PMCID: PMC6772048 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0223179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Metabolic risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD) warrant significant public health concern globally. This study aims to utilise the regional database of a major laboratory network to describe the geographic distribution pattern of eight different cardiometabolic risk factors (CMRFs), which in turn can potentially generate hypotheses for future research into locality specific preventive approaches. METHOD A cross-sectional design utilising de-identified laboratory data on eight CMRFs including fasting blood sugar level (FBSL); glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c); total cholesterol (TC); high density lipoprotein (HDL); albumin creatinine ratio (ACR); estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR); body mass index (BMI); and diabetes mellitus (DM) status was used to undertake descriptive and spatial analyses. CMRF test results were dichotomised into 'higher risk' and 'lower risk' values based on existing risk definitions. Australian Census Statistical Area Level 1 (SA1) were used as the geographic units of analysis, and an Empirical Bayes (EB) approach was used to smooth rates at SA1 level. Choropleth maps demonstrating the distribution of CMRFs rates at SA1 level were produced. Spatial clustering of CMRFs was assessed using Global Moran's I test and Local Indicators of Spatial Autocorrelation (LISA). RESULTS A total of 1,132,016 test data derived from 256,525 individuals revealed significant geographic variation in the distribution of 'higher risk' CMRF findings. The populated eastern seaboard of the study region demonstrated the highest rates of CMRFs. Global Moran's I values were significant and positive at SA1 level for all CMRFs. The highest spatial autocorrelation strength was found among obesity rates (0.328), and the lowest for albuminuria (0.028). LISA tests identified significant High-High (HH) and Low-Low (LL) spatial clusters of CMRFs, with LL predominantly in the less populated northern, central and southern regions of the study area. CONCLUSION The study describes a range of CMRFs with different distributions in the study region. The results allow generation of hypotheses to test in future research concerning location specific population health approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renin Toms
- School of Medicine, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Darren J. Mayne
- School of Medicine, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
- Public Health Unit, Illawarra Shoalhaven Local Health District, Warrawong, NSW, Australia
- School of Public Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Xiaoqi Feng
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
- School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Population Wellbeing and Environment Research Lab (PowerLab), School of Health and Society, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Andrew Bonney
- School of Medicine, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
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