Nanotechnology: an emerging approach to combat COVID-19

COVID-19 vaccine adverse events: Evaluating the pathophysiology with an emphasis on sulfur metabolism and endotheliopathy

In this narrative review, we assess the pathophysiology of severe adverse events that presented after vaccination with DNA and mRNA vaccines against COVID-19. The focus is on the perspective of an undersulfated and degraded glycocalyx, considering its impact on immunomodulation, inflammatory responses, coagulation and oxidative stress. The paper explores various factors that lead to glutathione and inorganic sulfate depletion and their subsequent effect on glycocalyx sulfation and other metabolites, including hormones. Components of COVID-19 vaccines, such as DNA and mRNA material, spike protein antigen and lipid nanoparticles, are involved in possible cytotoxic effects. The common thread connecting these adverse events is endotheliopathy or glycocalyx degradation, caused by depleted glutathione and inorganic sulfate levels, shear stress from circulating nanoparticles, aggregation and formation of protein coronas; leading to imbalanced immune responses and chronic release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, ultimately resulting in oxidative stress and systemic inflammatory response syndrome. By understanding the underlying pathophysiology of severe adverse events, better treatment options can be explored.

Nanomaterial in controlling biofilms and virulence of microbial pathogens

The escalating threat of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a grave concern to global public health, exacerbated by the alarming shortage of effective antibiotics in the pipeline. Biofilms, intricate populations of bacteria encased in self-produced matrices, pose a significant challenge to treatment, as they enhance resistance to antibiotics and contribute to the persistence of organisms. Amid these challenges, nanotechnology emerges as a promising domain in the fight against biofilms. Nanomaterials, with their unique properties at the nanoscale, offer innovative antibacterial modalities not present in traditional defensive mechanisms. This comprehensive review focuses on the potential of nanotechnology in combating biofilms, focusing on green-synthesized nanoparticles and their associated anti-biofilm potential. The review encompasses various aspects of nanoparticle-mediated biofilm inhibition, including mechanisms of action. The diverse mechanisms of action of green-synthesized nanoparticles offer valuable insights into their potential applications in addressing AMR and improving treatment outcomes, highlighting novel strategies in the ongoing battle against infectious diseases.

Engineered two-dimensional nanomaterials based diagnostics integrated with internet of medical things (IoMT) for COVID-19

More than four years have passed since an inimitable coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic hit the globe in 2019 after an uncontrolled transmission of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2) infection. The occurrence of this highly contagious respiratory infectious disease led to chaos and mortality all over the world. The peak paradigm shift of the researchers was inclined towards the accurate and rapid detection of diseases. Since 2019, there has been a boost in the diagnostics of COVID-19 via numerous conventional diagnostic tools like RT-PCR, ELISA, etc., and advanced biosensing kits like LFIA, etc. For the same reason, the use of nanotechnology and two-dimensional nanomaterials (2DNMs) has aided in the fabrication of efficient diagnostic tools to combat COVID-19. This article discusses the engineering techniques utilized for fabricating chemically active E2DNMs that are exceptionally thin and irregular. The techniques encompass the introduction of heteroatoms, intercalation of ions, and the design of strain and defects. E2DNMs possess unique characteristics, including a substantial surface area and controllable electrical, optical, and bioactive properties. These characteristics enable the development of sophisticated diagnostic platforms for real-time biosensors with exceptional sensitivity in detecting SARS-CoV-2. Integrating the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) with these E2DNMs-based advanced diagnostics has led to the development of portable, real-time, scalable, more accurate, and cost-effective SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic platforms. These diagnostic platforms have the potential to revolutionize SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis by making it faster, easier, and more accessible to people worldwide, thus making them ideal for resource-limited settings. These advanced IoMT diagnostic platforms may help with combating SARS-CoV-2 as well as tracking and predicting the spread of future pandemics, ultimately saving lives and mitigating their impact on global health systems.

Novel therapeutic approaches for the management of hepatitis infections

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) & hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a substantial reason for morbidity and mortality around the world. Chronic hepatitis B (CHB) infection is connected with an enhanced risk of liver cirrhosis, liver decompensation and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Conventional therapy do face certain challenges, for example, poor tolerability and the growth of active resistance. Thus, novel treatment procedures are essential to accomplish the initiation of strong and stable antiviral immune reactions of the individuals. This review explores the current nanotechnology-based carriers for drug and vaccine delivery to treat HBV and HCV.

Emerging Applications of Biomedical Science in Pandemic Prevention and Control: A Review

The COVID-19 pandemic has made it abundantly clear how crucial biomedical science is to pandemic control and prevention on a global scale. The importance of biomedical science in the fight against pandemics has increased with the appearance of new, deadly infectious diseases. Biomedical science and engineering have been presented as possible areas for combating the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) due to the unique challenges raised by the pandemic, as reported by epidemiologists, immunologists, and doctors, including the survival, symptoms, protein surface composition, and infection mechanisms of COVID-19. These multidisciplinary engineering concepts are applied to design and develop prevention methods, diagnostics, monitoring, and therapies. An infectious disease outbreak that has spread over a sizable region, such as several continents or the entire world, and is affecting a sizable number of people is referred to as a "pandemic. While current knowledge about the SARS-CoV-2 virus is still limited, various (old and new) biomedical approaches have been developed and tested. Here, we review the emerging applications of biomedical science in pandemic prevention and control, including rapid diagnosis tests, the development of vaccines, antiviral therapies, artificial intelligence, genome sequencing, and personal protective equipment. Biomedical science and nanotechnology are two fields that have the potential to combine to develop emerging applications for combating pandemics. In this review, we also discuss the intersection of biomedical science and nanotechnology in pandemic prevention and control.

An update on vaccine status and the role of nanomedicine against SARS-CoV-2: A narrative review

Background and Aims

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the SARS-CoV-2 novel coronavirus, is a highly communicable disease that gave rise to the ongoing pandemic. Despite prompt action across many laboratories in many countries, effective management of this disease is still out of reach. The focus of this review is to describe various vaccination approaches and nanomedicine-based delivery systems against COVID-19.

Methods

The articles included in this study were searched and added from different electronic databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane, Embase, and preprint databases.

Results

Mass immunization with vaccines is currently at the forefront of COVID-19 infection control. Such vaccines are live attenuated vaccines, inactivated vaccines, nucleic acid-based vaccines, protein subunit vaccines, viral-vector vaccines, and virus-like particle platforms. However, many promising avenues are currently being explored in laboratory and clinical settings, including treatment options, prevention, diagnosis, and management of the disease. Soft nanoparticles like lipid nanoparticles (solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNPs), liposomes, nanostructured lipid carriers, nanoemulsions, and protein nanoparticles play an essential role in nanomedicine. Because of their unique and excellent properties, nanomedicines have potential applications in treating COVID-19 disease.

Conclusions

This review work provides an overview of the therapeutic aspects of COVID-19, including vaccination and the role of nanomedicines in the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of COVID-19.

Emerging trends in point-of-care biosensing strategies for molecular architectures and antibodies of SARS-CoV-2

COVID-19, a highly contagious viral infection caused by the occurrence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), has turned out to be a viral pandemic then ravaged many countries worldwide. In the recent years, point-of-care (POC) biosensors combined with state-of-the-art bioreceptors, and transducing systems enabled the development of novel diagnostic tools for rapid and reliable detection of biomarkers associated with SARS-CoV-2. The present review thoroughly summarises and discusses various biosensing strategies developed for probing SARS-CoV-2 molecular architectures (viral genome, S Protein, M protein, E protein, N protein and non-structural proteins) and antibodies as a potential diagnostic tool for COVID-19. This review discusses the various structural components of SARS-CoV-2, their binding regions and the bioreceptors used for recognizing the structural components. The various types of clinical specimens investigated for rapid and POC detection of SARS-CoV-2 is also highlighted. The importance of nanotechnology and artificial intelligence (AI) approaches in improving the biosensor performance for real-time and reagent-free monitoring the biomarkers of SARS-CoV-2 is also summarized. This review also encompasses existing practical challenges and prospects for developing new POC biosensors for clinical monitoring of COVID-19.

The emerging significance of nanomedicine-based approaches to fighting COVID-19 variants of concern: A perspective on the nanotechnology’s role in COVID-19 diagnosis and treatment

COVID-19, one of the worst-hit pandemics, has quickly spread like fire across nations with very high mortality rates. Researchers all around the globe are making consistent efforts to address the main challenges faced due to COVID-19 infection including prompt diagnosis and therapeutics to reduce mortality. Conventional medical technology does not effectively contain the havoc caused by deadly COVID-19. This signals a crucial mandate for innovative and novel interventions in diagnostics and therapeutics to combat this ongoing pandemic and counter its successor or disease if it were ever to arise. The expeditious solutions can spring from promising areas such as nanomedicine and nanotechnology. Nanomedicine is a dominant tool that has a huge potential to alleviate the disease burden by providing nanoparticle-based vaccines and carriers. Nanotechnology encompasses multidisciplinary aspects including artificial intelligence, chemistry, biology, material science, physical science, and medicine. Nanoparticles offer many advantages compared to larger particles, including better magnetic properties and a multiplied surface-to-volume ratio. Given this, the present review focuses on promising nanomedicine-based solutions to combat COVID-19 and their utility to control a broad range of pathogens and viruses, along with understanding their role in the therapy, diagnosis, and prevention of COVID-19. Various studies, reports, and recent research and development from the nanotechnology perspective are discussed in this article.

Therapeutic and diagnostic applications of nanoparticles in the management of COVID-19: a comprehensive overview

In December 2019, Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) was reported in Wuhan, China. Comprehensive strategies for quick identification, prevention, control, and remedy of COVID-19 have been implemented until today. Advances in various nanoparticle-based technologies, including organic and inorganic nanoparticles, have created new perspectives in this field. These materials were extensively used to control COVID-19 because of their specific attribution to preparing antiviral face masks, various safety sensors, etc. In this review, the most current nanoparticle-based technologies, applications, and achievements against the coronavirus were summarized and highlighted. This paper also offers nanoparticle preventive, diagnostic, and treatment options to combat this pandemic.

Investigating the Antibacterial Activity and Safety of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles versus a Commercial Alcohol-Based Hand-Sanitizer: Can Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Be Useful for Hand Sanitation?

Hand hygiene is the key factor to control and prevent the spread of infections, for example, hospital-acquired infections (HAIs). People commonly use alcohol-based hand sanitizers to assure hand hygiene. However, frequent use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers in a pandemic situation (e.g., COVID-19) was associated with serious drawbacks such as skin toxicity including irritation, skin dermatitis, and skin dryness or cracking, along with peeling, redness, or itching with higher possibility of infection. This demands the development of alternative novel products that are effective as alcohol-based hand sanitizers but have no hazardous effects. Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) are known to have broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, be compatible with the biological system and the environment, and have applicable and economic industrial-scale production. Thus, ZnO-NPs might be a good candidate for hand sanitation. To the best of our knowledge, the antibacterial activity of ZnO-NPs in comparison to alcohol-based hand sanitizers has not yet been studied. In the present work, a comparative study of the antibacterial activity of ZnO-NPs vs. Sterillium, a commercial alcohol-based hand sanitizer that is commonly used in Egyptian hospitals, was performed against common microorganisms known to cause HAIs in Egypt, including Acinetobacter baumannii, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and Staphylococcus aureus. The safety profiles of ZnO-NPs and Sterillium were also assessed. The obtained results demonstrated the superior antibacterial activity and safety of ZnO-NPs compared to Sterillium. Therefore, ZnO-NPs could be a promising candidate for hand sanitation in comparison to alcohol-based hand sanitizers; however, several studies related to long-term toxicity and stability of ZnO-NPs and investigations into their antimicrobial activity and safety in healthcare settings are still required in the future to ascertain their antimicrobial activity and safety.

Rhamnolipid Nano-Micelles Inhibit SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Have No Dermal or Eye Toxic Effects in Rabbits

Hand hygiene is considered to be the key factor in controlling and preventing infection, either in hospital care settings or in the community. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are commonly used due to their rapid action and broad spectrum of microbicidal activity, offering protection against bacteria and viruses. However, their frequent administration during COVID-19 pandemic was associated with serious hazards, such as skin toxicity, including irritation, skin dermatitis, skin dryness or cracking, along with peeling redness or itching, with the higher possibility of getting infections. Thus, there is a need to find alternative and novel approaches for hand sanitation. In our previous publications, we reported that rhamnolipids nano-micelles had a comparable antibacterial activity to alcohol-based hand sanitizer and a lower cytotoxicity against human dermal fibroblast cells. In the current study, we investigated the antiviral activity of rhamnolipids nano-micelles against SARS-CoV-2. There was no cytotoxic effect on Vero cells noted at the tested concentrations of rhamnolipids nano-micelles. The rhamnolipids nano-micelles solution at 20, 78, and 312 µg/mL all demonstrated a significant (p < 0.05) decrease of virus infectivity compared to the virus only and the blank vehicle sample. In addition, an acute irritation test was performed on rabbits to further ascertain the biosafety of rhamnolipids nano-micelles. In the eye and skin irritation tests, no degree of irritation was recorded after topical application of rhamnolipids nano-micelles. In addition, histopathological, biomarker, and hematological analyses from animals treated with rhamnolipids nano-micelles were identical to those recorded for untreated animal. From the above, we can conclude that rhamnolipids nano-micelles are a good candidate to be used as a hand sanitizer instead of alcohol-based hand sanitizers. However, they must still be tested in the future among healthcare workers (HCW) in a health care setting to ascertain their antimicrobial efficacy and safety compared to alcohol-based hand sanitizers.

A systemic review on liquid crystals, nanoformulations and its application for detection and treatment of SARS - CoV- 2 (COVID - 19)

The COVID-19 is a pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, has instigated major health problems and prompted WHO to proclaim a worldwide medical emergency. The knowledge of SARS-CoV-2 fundamental structure, aetiology, its entrance mechanism, membrane hijacking and immune response against the virus, are important parameters to develop effective vaccines and medicines. Liquid crystals integrated nano-techniques and various nanoformulations were applied to tackle the severity of the virus. It was reported that nanoformulations have helped to enhance the effectiveness of presently accessible antiviral medicines or to elicit a fast immunological response against COVID-19 virus. Applications of liquid crystals, nanostructures, nanoformulations and nanotechnology in diagnosis, prevention, treatment and tailored vaccine administration against COVID-19 which will help in establishing the framework for a successful pandemic combat are reviewed. This review also focuses on limitations associated with liquid crystal-nanotechnology based systems and suggests the possible ways to address these limitations. Also, topical advancements in the ground of liquid crystals and nanostructures established diagnostics (nanosensor/biosensor) are discussed in detail.

Electrostatic Spray Disinfection Using Nano-Engineered Solution on Frequently Touched Surfaces in Indoor and Outdoor Environments

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in high demand for disinfection technologies. However, the corresponding spray technologies are still not completely optimized for disinfection purposes. There are important problems, like the irregular coverage and dripping of disinfectant solutions on hard and vertical surfaces. In this study, we highlight two major points. Firstly, we discuss the effectiveness of the electrostatic spray deposition (ESD) of nanoparticle-based disinfectant solutions for systematic and long-lasting disinfection. Secondly, we show that, based on the type of material of the substrate, the effectiveness of ESD varies. Accordingly, 12 frequently touched surface materials were sprayed using a range of electrostatic spray system parameters, including ion generator voltage, nozzle spray size and distance of spray. It was observed that for most cases, the surfaces become completely covered with the nanoparticles within 10 s. Acrylic, Teflon, PVC, and polypropylene surfaces show a distinct effect of ESD and non-ESD sprays. The nanoparticles form a uniform layer with better surface coverage in case of electrostatic deposition. Quantitative variations and correlations show that 1.5 feet of working distance, an 80 μm spray nozzle diameter and an ion generator voltage of 3-7 kV ensures a DEF (differential electric field) that corresponds to an optimized charge-to-mass ratio, ensuring efficient coverage of nanoparticles.

Rhamnolipid Nano-Micelles versus Alcohol-Based Hand Sanitizer: A Comparative Study for Antibacterial Activity against Hospital-Acquired Infections and Toxicity Concerns

Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) are considered to be a major global healthcare challenge, in large part because of the development of microbial resistance to currently approved antimicrobial drugs. HAIs are frequently preventable through infection prevention and control measures, with hand hygiene as a key activity. Improving hand hygiene was reported to reduce the transmission of healthcare-associated pathogens and HAIs. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are commonly used due to their rapid action and broad spectrum of microbicidal activity, offering protection against bacteria and viruses. However, their frequent administration has been reported to be associated with many side effects, such as skin sensitivity, skin drying, and cracks, which promote further skin infections. Thus, there is an essential need to find alternative approaches to hand sanitation. Rhamnolipids are glycolipids produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and were shown to have broad antimicrobial activity as biosurfactants. We have previously demonstrated the antimicrobial activity of rhamnolipid nano-micelles against selected drug-resistant Gram-negative (Salmonella Montevideo and Salmonella Typhimurium) and Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae). To the best of our knowledge, the antimicrobial activity of rhamnolipid nano-micelles in comparison to alcohol-based hand sanitizers against microorganisms commonly causing HAIs in Egypt—such as Acinetobacter baumannii and Staphylococcus aureus—has not yet been studied. In the present work, a comparative study of the antibacterial activity of rhamnolipid nano-micelles versus alcohol-based hand sanitizers was performed, and their safety profiles were also assessed. It was demonstrated that rhamnolipid nano-micelles had a comparable antibacterial activity to alcohol-based hand sanitizer, with a better safety profile, i.e., rhamnolipid nano-micelles are unlikely to cause any harmful effects on the skin. Thus, rhamnolipid nano-micelles could be recommended to replace alcohol-based hand sanitizers; however, they must still be tested by healthcare workers in healthcare settings to ascertain their antimicrobial activity and safety.

Rapid evolution of SARS-CoV-2 challenges human defenses

The race between pathogens and their hosts is a major evolutionary driver, where both reshuffle their genomes to overcome and reorganize the defenses for infection, respectively. Evolutionary theory helps formulate predictions on the future evolutionary dynamics of SARS-CoV-2, which can be monitored through unprecedented real-time tracking of SARS-CoV-2 population genomics at the global scale. Here we quantify the accelerating evolution of SARS-CoV-2 by tracking the SARS-CoV-2 mutation globally, with a focus on the Receptor Binding Domain (RBD) of the spike protein determining infection success. We estimate that the > 820 million people that had been infected by October 5, 2021, produced up to 10²¹ copies of the virus, with 12 new effective RBD variants appearing, on average, daily. Doubling of the number of RBD variants every 89 days, followed by selection of the most infective variants challenges our defenses and calls for a shift to anticipatory, rather than reactive tactics involving collaborative global sequencing and vaccination.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Type 2-Causing Coronavirus: Variants and Preventive Strategies

COVID-19 vaccines have constituted a substantial scientific leap in countering severe acute respiratory syndrome type 2-causing coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), and worldwide implementation of vaccination programs has significantly contributed to the global pandemic effort by saving many lives. However, the continuous evolution of the SARS-CoV-2 viral genome has resulted in different variants with a diverse range of mutations, some with enhanced virulence compared with previous lineages. Such variants are still a great concern as they have the potential to reduce vaccine efficacy and increase the viral transmission rate. This review summarizes the significant variants of SARS-CoV-2 encountered to date (December 2021) and discusses a spectrum of possible preventive strategies, with an emphasis on physical and materials science.

Emerging technologies and their roles during the COVID-19 pandemic and safety challenges of frontline medical staff: a rapid review

Purpose

The coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has rapidly spread worldwide, with an ever-increasing number of confirmed positive cases and mortality rate. Moreover, frontline medical staff fighting with the COVID-19 infection have been infected and show psychological effects of the pandemic. This study presents an overview of the emerging literature on the safety challenges of frontline medical staff and how technology is being used to control the COVID-19 pandemic.

Methods

This study conducts a rapid review of available studies by following the “preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses” (PRISMA) guidelines. Sixty-three articles were selected for this rapid review paper from three popular digital data repositories.

Results

The majority of the studies chosen focused on the discussion of COVID-19 with regard to China, Singapore, Italy, and the USA. A previously proposed framework is used to synthesize the findings of this study. The results throw light on the several challenges faced by medical staff during the COVID-19 pandemic. Eleven major technologies have been identified in this paper.

Conclusion

This work concludes that technology helps in the prevention and detection of the COVID-19 infection, where it specifically helps in reducing the safety challenges of frontline medical staff and monitoring the COVID-19 patients.

Breath Sensor Technology for the Use in Mechanical Lung Ventilation Equipment for Monitoring Critically Ill Patients

Background: The need for mechanical lung ventilation is common in critically ill patients, either with COVID-19 infection or due to other causes. Monitoring of patients being ventilated is essential for timely and improved management. We here propose the use of a novel breath volatile organic compound sensor technology to be used in a mechanical lung ventilation machine for this purpose; the technology was evaluated in critically ill COVID-19 patients on mechanical lung ventilation. Methods: Based on the consistency results of our study data, the breath sensor device with metal oxide gas sensors and environment-controlling sensors was mounted on the ventilation exhaust port of the ventilation machine; this allowed to ensure additional safety since the device was placed outside the contour between the patient and equipment. Results: The sensors allowed stable registration of the signals for up to several weeks for 10 patients in total, depending on the storage amount; a proportion of patients were intubated or received tracheostoma during the evaluation period. Future studies are on the way to correlate sensor readings to other parameters characterizing the severity of the patient condition and outcome. Conclusions: We suppose that such technology will allow patient monitoring in real-time for timely identification of deterioration, potentially requiring some change of management. The obtained results are preliminary and further studies are needed to examine their clinical significance.

Nanoparticle approaches against SARS-CoV-2 infection

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the highly contagious severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has become the worst pandemic disease of the current millennium. To address this crisis, therapeutic nanoparticles, including inorganic nanoparticles, lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, virus-like nanoparticles, and cell membrane-coated nanoparticles, have all offered compelling antiviral strategies. This article reviews these strategies in three categories: (1) nanoparticle-enabled detection of SARS-CoV-2, (2) nanoparticle-based treatment for COVID-19, and (3) nanoparticle vaccines against SARS-CoV-2. We discuss how nanoparticles are tailor-made to biointerface with the host and the virus in each category. For each nanoparticle design, we highlight its structure-function relationship that enables effective antiviral activity. Overall, nanoparticles bring numerous new opportunities to improve our response to the current COVID-19 pandemic and enhance our preparedness for future viral outbreaks.

Application of Nanomaterials as an Advanced Strategy for the Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment of Viral Diseases

The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic poses serious global health concerns with the continued emergence of new variants. The periodic outbreak of novel emerging and re-emerging infectious pathogens has elevated concerns and challenges for the future. To develop mitigation strategies against infectious diseases, nano-based approaches are being increasingly applied in diagnostic systems, prophylactic vaccines, and therapeutics. This review presents the properties of various nanoplatforms and discusses their role in the development of sensors, vectors, delivery agents, intrinsic immunostimulants, and viral inhibitors. Advanced nanomedical applications for infectious diseases have been highlighted. Moreover, physicochemical properties that confer physiological advantages and contribute to the control and inhibition of infectious diseases have been discussed. Safety concerns limit the commercial production and clinical use of these technologies in humans; however, overcoming these limitations may enable the use of nanomaterials to resolve current infection control issues via application of nanomaterials as a platform for the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of viral diseases.

Role of different types of nanomaterials against diagnosis, prevention and therapy of COVID-19

In 2019, a novel type of coronavirus emerged in China called SARS-COV-2, known COVID-19, threatens global health and possesses negative impact on people's quality of life, leading to an urgent need for its diagnosis and remedy. On the other hand, the presence of hazardous infectious waste led to the increase of the risk of transmitting the virus by individuals and by hospitals during the COVID-19 pandemic. Hence, in this review, we survey previous researches on nanomaterials that can be effective for guiding strategies to deal with the current COVID-19 pandemic and also decrease the hazardous infectious waste in the environment. We highlight the contribution of nanomaterials that possess potential to therapy, prevention, detect targeted virus proteins and also can be useful for large population screening, for the development of environmental sensors and filters. Besides, we investigate the possibilities of employing the nanomaterials in antiviral research and treatment development, examining the role of nanomaterials in antiviral- drug design, including the importance of nanomaterials in drug delivery and vaccination, and for the production of medical equipment. Nanomaterials-based technologies not only contribute to the ongoing SARS- CoV-2 research efforts but can also provide platforms and tools for the understanding, protection, detection and treatment of future viral diseases.

Could Nanotechnology Help to End the Fight Against COVID-19? Review of Current Findings, Challenges and Future Perspectives

A serious viral infectious disease was introduced to the globe by the end of 2019 that was seen primarily from China, but spread worldwide in a few months to be a pandemic. Since then, accurate prevention, early detection, and effective treatment strategies are not yet outlined. There is no approved drug to counter its worldwide transmission. However, integration of nanostructured delivery systems with the current management strategies has promised a pronounced opportunity to tackle the pandemic. This review addressed the various promising nanotechnology-based approaches for the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of the pandemic. The pharmaceutical, pharmacoeconomic, and regulatory aspects of these systems with currently achieved or predicted beneficial outcomes, challenges, and future perspectives are also highlighted.

Potentialities of bioinspired metal and metal oxide nanoparticles in biomedical sciences

To date, various reports have shown that metallic gold bhasma at the nanoscale form was used as medicine as early as 2500 B.C. in India, China, and Egypt. Owing to their unique physicochemical, biological, and electronic properties, they have broad utilities in energy, environment, agriculture and more recently, the biomedical field. The biomedical domain has been used in drug delivery, imaging, diagnostics, therapeutics, and biosensing applications. In this review, we will discuss and highlight the increasing control over metal and metal oxide nanoparticle structures as smart nanomaterials utilized in the biomedical domain to advance the role of biosynthesized nanoparticles for improving human health through wide applications in the targeted drug delivery, controlled release drug delivery, wound dressing, tissue scaffolding, and medical implants. In addition, we have discussed concerns related to the role of these types of nanoparticles as an anti-viral agent by majorly highlighting the ways to combat the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic, along with their prospects.

Rhamnolipids Nano-Micelles as a Potential Hand Sanitizer

COVID-19 is a pandemic disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2, which continues to cause global health and economic problems since emerging in China in late 2019. Until now, there are no standard antiviral treatments. Thus, several strategies were adopted to minimize virus transmission, such as social distancing, face covering protection and hand hygiene. Rhamnolipids are glycolipids produced formally by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and as biosurfactants, they were shown to have broad antimicrobial activity. In this study, we investigated the antimicrobial activity of rhamnolipids against selected multidrug resistant bacteria and SARS-CoV-2. Rhamnolipids were produced by growing Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain LeS3 in a new medium formulated from chicken carcass soup. The isolated rhamnolipids were characterized for their molecular composition, formulated into nano-micelles, and the antibacterial activity of the nano-micelles was demonstrated in vitro against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive drug resistant bacteria. In silico studies docking rhamnolipids to structural and non-structural proteins of SARS-CoV-2 was also performed. We demonstrated the efficient and specific interaction of rhamnolipids with the active sites of these proteins. Additionally, the computational studies suggested that rhamnolipids have membrane permeability activity. Thus, the obtained results indicate that SARS-CoV-2 could be another target of rhamnolipids and could find utility in the fight against COVID-19, a future perspective to be considered.

Hydrotalcite-Niclosamide Nanohybrid as Oral Formulation towards SARS-CoV-2 Viral Infections

COVID-19 has been affecting millions of individuals worldwide and, thus far, there is no accurate therapeutic strategy. This critical situation necessitates novel formulations for already existing, FDA approved, but poorly absorbable drug candidates, such as niclosamide (NIC), which is of great relevance. In this context, we have rationally designed NIC-loaded hydrotalcite composite nanohybrids, which were further coated with Tween 60 or hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC), and characterized them in vitro. The optimized nanohybrids showed particle sizes <300 nm and were orally administrated to rats to determine whether they could retain an optimum plasma therapeutic concentration of NIC that would be effective for treating COVID-19. The pharmacokinetic (PK) results clearly indicated that hydrotalcite-based NIC formulations could be highly potential options for treating the ongoing pandemic and we are on our way to understanding the in vivo anti-viral efficacy sooner. It is worth mentioning that hydrotalcite–NIC nanohybrids maintained a therapeutic NIC level, even above the required IC₅₀ value, after just a single administration in 8–12 h. In conclusion, we were very successfully able to develop a NIC oral formulation by immobilizing with hydrotalcite nanoparticles, which were further coated with Tween 60 or HPMC, in order to enhance their emulsification in the gastrointestinal tract.

Functionality of nanomaterials and its technological aspects - Used in preventing, diagnosing and treating COVID-19

COVID-19 (Coronavirus) has severely affected the life of human beings since December 2019. Many difficulties are faced by human beings to prevent the spread of the corona virus. However, this unexpected evolution of COVID-19 has also thrown many challenges to scientists and researchers so as to develop technologies that can be used to combat COVID-19. In the effort to combat COVID-19, many research universities and academic laboratories are also contributing by developing many technologies like Facing masks, hand sanitizers, hand washing machines, etc., to control and prevent the spread of COVID-19 disease. The use of Nano-materials is proving to be very effective in prevention, detection and diagnosis of COVID-19. In this paper many such technologies that are used to combat COVID-19 are also discussed. Some of the technologies like the germ trap technology used in face masks and hoods are also discussed. The use of nano-coatings, nano materials like graphene and carbon nano materials is playing a key role in preventing the spread of the virus. Antimicrobial nano-materials like silver nanoparticles are also effectively contributing to preventing the spread of the virus. Nano bio-sensors and gold nanoparticles are used in RT-PCR (Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction) testing devices which are used for detection of coronavirus. The use of many nano chemicals and compounds has helped in making vaccines and anti-viral drugs that are today showing a way to safeguard human beings against the attack of this deadly virus.