Spinach leaf phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase: purification, properties, and kinetic studies

CO2 carbamylation of proteins as a mechanism in physiology

Carbamate bonds occur following the nucleophilic attack of CO2 on to an amine. In proteins, this can occur at lysine side chains or at the N-terminus. For CO2 binding to occur an amine must be present in the NH2 form and consequently carbamates represent a site-specific post-translational modification, occurring only in environments of reduced hydration. Due to the specific nature of these interactions, coupled with the inability of these bonds to survive protein preparation methods, carbamate reactions appear rare. However, more biologically important examples continue to emerge that use carbamates as key parts of their mechanisms. In this review, we discuss specific examples of carbamate bond formation and their biological consequences with an aim to highlight this important, and often forgotten, biochemical group.

Evolution of C4 phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase

C4 plants are known to be of polyphyletic origin and to have evolved independently several times during the evolution of angiosperms. This implies that the C4 isoform of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) originated from a nonphotosynthetic PEPC gene that was already present in the C3 ancestral species. To meet the special requirements of the C4 photosynthetic pathway the expression program of the C4 PEPC gene had to be changed to achieve a strong and selective expression in leaf mesophyll cells. In addition, the altered metabolite concentrations around C4 PEPC in the mesophyll cytoplasm necessitated changes in the enzyme's kinetic and regulatory properties. To obtain insight into the evolutionary steps involved in these altered enzyme characteristics, and even the order of these steps, the dicot genus Flaveria (Asteraceae) appears to be the experimental system of choice. Flaveria contains closely related C3, C3-C4, and C4 species that can be ordered by their gradual increase in C4 photosynthetic traits. The C4 PEPC of F. trinervia, which is encoded by the ppcA gene class, possesses typical kinetic and regulatory features of a C4-type PEPC. Its nearest neighbor is the orthologous ppcA gene of the C3 species F. pringlei. This latter gene encodes a typical nonphotosynthetic C3-type PEPC which is believed to be similar to the C3 ancestral PEPC. This pair of orthologous PEPCs has been used to map C4-specific molecular determinants for the kinetic and regulatory characteristics of C4 PEPCs. The most notable finding from these investigations was the identification of a C4 PEPC invariant site-specific mutation from alanine (C3) to serine (C4) at position 774 that was a necessary and late step in the evolution of C3 to C4 PEPC. The C3-C4 intermediate ppcA PEPCs are used to identify the sequence of events leading from a C3- to a C4-type PEPC.

Kinetics of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from Zea mays leaves at high concentration of substrates

At low concentrations of phosphoenolpyruvate and magnesium, the substrate of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) from Zea mays leaves is the MgPEP complex and free phosphoenolpyruvate (fPEP) is an allosteric activator [A. Tovar-Méndez, R. Rodríguez-Sotres, D.M. López-Valentín, R.A. Muñoz-Clares, Biochem. J. 332 (1998) 633-642]. To further the understanding of this photosynthetic enzyme, we have re-investigated its kinetics covering a 500-fold range in fPEP and free Mg(2+) (fMg(2+)) concentrations. Apparent V(max) values were dependent on the concentration of the fixed free species, suggesting that these species are substrates of the PEPC-catalyzed reaction. However, when substrate inhibition was taken into account, similar V(max) values were obtained in all saturation curves for a given varied free species, indicating that MgPEP is indeed the reaction substrate. As substrate inhibition may be the result of the rise in ionic strength of the assay medium, we studied its effects on the kinetics of the enzyme. Mixed inhibition against MgPEP was found, with apparent K(ic) and K(iu) values of 36 and 1370 mM, respectively. Initial velocity patterns determined at constant ionic strength, 600 mM, were consistent with MgPEP being the true PEPC substrate, fPEP an allosteric activator, and fMg(2+) a weak, non-competitive inhibitor, thus confirming the kinetic mechanism determined previously at low concentrations of PEP and Mg(2+), and indicating that apparent substrate inhibition by MgPEP in maize leaf PEPC is caused by inhibition by high magnesium and ionic strength.

Plausible phosphoenolpyruvate binding site revealed by 2.6 A structure of Mn2+-bound phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from Escherichia coli

We have determined the crystal structure of Mn2+-bound Escherichia coli phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) using X-ray diffraction at 2.6 A resolution, and specified the location of enzyme-bound Mn2+, which is essential for catalytic activity. The electron density map reveals that Mn2+ is bound to the side chain oxygens of Glu-506 and Asp-543, and located at the top of the alpha/beta barrel in PEPC. The coordination sphere of Mn2+ observed in E. coli PEPC is similar to that of Mn2+ found in the pyruvate kinase structure. The model study of Mn2+-bound PEPC complexed with phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) reveals that the side chains of Arg-396, Arg-581 and Arg-713 could interact with PEP.

Regulation of the supply of cytosolic oxaloacetate for mitochondrial metabolism via phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase in barley leaf protoplasts. I. The effect of covalent modification on PEPC activity, pH response, and kinetic properties

The regulation of the supply of oxaloacetate (OAA) for mitochondrial metabolism via phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) by covalent modification is studied in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) leaf protoplasts in light or darkness as well as under photorespiratory or non-photorespiratory conditions. Extracts for studies on in vivo PEPC phosphorylation were prepared from barley leaf protoplasts by rapid filtration, fractionating the cell within less than 1 s. Measurements of in vitro PEPC activity were performed on samples quickly frozen in liquid nitrogen to break the cell and stop metabolism and thus preserve the in vivo activation state. The relative PEPC phosphorylation state increased upon illumination and decreased upon redarkening under photorespiratory and non-photorespiratory conditions. PEPC activity measured in the presence of malate (3 mM) under photorespiratory conditions showed the same response indicating that a light-induced increase in PEPC activity and decrease in malate sensitivity is caused by an increased phosphorylation level of the PEPC protein. PEPC activity was pH dependent. At the physiological cytosolic pH, activity was suboptimal, but most sensitive towards malate inhibition and glucose 6-phosphate stimulation. The presence of malate increased the sensitivity of PEPC activity towards pH changes. The response of PEPC activity to changing pH was not affected by changes in the activation state of the enzyme. The Km (phosphoenolpyruvate, PEP) is about 1 mM. Upon illumination the Km (PEP) decrease significantly. Vmax was unaffected by the light treatment. The presence of physiological concentrations of glucose 6-phosphate decreased Km (PEP) 5- to 10-fold and increased Vmax by about 35%. The effect of glucose 6-phosphate was strongest (up to 7-fold) at subsaturating PEP concentrations stimulating PEPC activity to nearly maximal rates. The results show that an increase in PEPC phosphorylation state causes an increase in PEPC activity as well as in substrate affinity leading to an increased production of OAA in the light.

Regulation of the supply of oxaloacetate for mitochondrial metabolism via phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase in barley leaf protoplasts. II. Effects of metabolites on PEPC activity at different activation states of the protein

The regulation of the supply of oxaloacetate (OAA) for mitochondrial metabolism via phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) by metabolites is studied in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) leaf protoplasts in light or darkness as well as under photorespiratory or non-photorespiratory conditions. Measurements on PEPC activity were performed on samples quickly frozen in liquid nitrogen to break the cell and stop metabolism and thus preserve the in vivo activation state. Glycine, serine, pyruvate, acetyl-CoA, glycolate, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, fructose 2,6-bisphosphate and ADP had no significant effect on PEPC activity. Malate, aspartate and glutamate were strong inhibitors of PEPC activity decreasing the activity more in light versus darkness. However, at the physiological cytosolic concentration of these metabolites under the respective conditions, inhibition of PEPC activity was about the same with the exception of aspartate which inhibits more under non-photorespiratory than under photorespiratory conditions. 2-Oxoglutarate and glyoxylate decreased PEPC activity by 20 to 40% in the range of its physiological cytosolic concentration. Inhibition by physiological cytosolic concentrations of glutamine was limited. Glucose 6-phosphate, fructose 6-phosphate, 3-phosphoglycerate, dihydroxyacetonphosphate and P(i) stimulated PEPC activity significantly in their physiological cytosolic concentration range. Physiological cytosolic concentrations of glucose 6-phosphate and fructose 6-phosphate activated PEPC activity to about the same extent under all conditions applied, while 3-phosphoglycerate and dihydroxyacetonphosphate stimulating stronger under non-photorespiratory versus photorespiratory conditions. Moreover, dihydroxyacetonphosphate stimulated PEPC activity more in light versus darkness under non-photorespiratory conditions. P(i) activation of PEPC activity decreases in light versus darkness under non-photorespiratory conditions. Stimulation of PEPC activity by citrate in its physiological concentration range is limited. Glucose 1-phosphate and AMP activated PEPC activity only at concentrations higher than their physiological levels in the cytosol. Determinations of PEPC activity in the presence of different malate/glucose 6-phosphate ratios revealed that glucose 6-phosphate totally relieved the inhibitory effect of malate. The regulatory properties of PEPC activity will be discussed in relation to its functions in C3 plants.

Purification and characterization of the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from the facultative chemolithotroph Thiobacillus novellus (ATCC 8093)

Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (EC4.1.1.31), which catalyzes the carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate to produce oxaloacetate was purified 465-fold from extracts of organotrophically grown Thiobacillus novellus. Nondenaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) of the purified enzyme revealed the presence of two bands after staining with Buffalo Black. Gels stained with Fast Violet B after incubation with PEP, HCO3-, Mg2+ and acetyl CoA also showed two bands of activity with the faster moving the more active of the two. Sodium dodecylsulfate (SDS)-PAGE of the enzyme heated at 100 degrees C for 5 min revealed the presence of three intensely stained bands of M(r) 95 K, 51 K, and 28 K. However, electrophoresis of the enzyme heated for 2 min showed a single band of about 100 K, indicating that the preparation was likely homogeneous. The 51 K and 28 K subunits are thus products of the 95 K subunit. Gel filtration studies of the native enzyme yielded a M(r) of 360 K. Therefore, the enzyme is a tetramer. The optimum pH in Tris buffer was 8.0, with Km for PEP 0.64 mM, HCO3- 0.11 mM, and acetyl CoA a potent activator, 1.3 microM. A divalent cation best served by Mg2+ gave sigmoidal initial velocity plots. Hill plots of the data gave coefficients (nH) of 2.6. None of the metabolites tested, nucleotide triophosphates excepted, significantly affected enzyme activity. Binding studies with 14C-labelled PEP revealed the binding of about 20 moles PEP per mole (360,000 g) of PEPC. Initial velocity studies suggest that the reaction is catalyzed by a random Bi Bi mechanism. Despite the lack of inhibition by certain metabolites, the enzyme's function is probably anaplerotic.

Regulation of Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from Crassula argentea: effect of incubation with ligands and dilution on oligomeric state, activity, and allosteric properties

The relationship between the aggregation state and allosteric properties of purified phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from Crassula argentea was examined using both kinetic and physical techniques. Analysis by native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed that dilution induced a dissociation of the active tetramer to a less active dimer. Kinetic assays showed that inhibition of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase by 5 mM malate measured at a saturating phosphoenolpyruvate concentration rose to nearly 80% with increasing preassay dilution while the activity in the absence of malate remained constant. Kinetic bursts were observed when enzyme-initiated assays were measured at a subsaturating phosphoenolpyruvate concentration. At saturating phosphoenolpyruvate concentrations, however, increasing lags developed in response to increasing the preassay dilution of the enzyme. Further, dynamic laser-light scattering measurements showed that preincubation of the dilute enzyme with phosphoenolpyruvate stabilized the tetramer while the presence of malate induced dimer formation. These observations confirm and extend earlier work with the extracted active malate insensitive night and less active, malate-sensitive day forms of the enzyme (Wu and Wedding [1985] Plant Physiol. 77, 667-675). Activity measured at subsaturating phosphoenolpyruvate concentrations dropped with increasing preassay dilution of enzyme, while activation by 3.2 mM glucose 6-phosphate, assayed at a low phosphoenolpyruvate concentration (0.044 mM), increased with dilution to nearly 400%. In this case activation results from a decrease in the control rate as the activity measured in the presence of glucose 6-phosphate was nearly constant, similar in effect to saturating phosphoenolpyruvate in the assay. Glucose 6-phosphate induced tetramer formation of the dilute enzyme as measured by light-scattering similar to the effects induced by PEP. In addition, when diluted (dimeric) PEPC was preincubated with PEP or glucose 6-phosphate the enzyme became less sensitive to malate inhibition, while the active-site directed ligand 2-phosphoglycolate had no effect on malate inhibition. These results indicate that both the substrate PEP and the activator glucose 6-phosphate stabilize the active tetramer via binding and interaction at an activator site separate from the active site.

Regulation of the aggregation state of maize phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase: evidence from dynamic light-scattering measurements

The molecular weights of different aggregational states of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase purified from the leaves of Zea mays have been determined by measurement of the molecular diameter using a Malvern dynamic light scattering spectrometer. Using these data to identify the monomer, dimer, tetramer, and larger aggregate(s) the effect of pH and various ligands on the aggregational equilibria of this enzyme have been determined. At neutral pH the enzyme favored the tetrameric form. At both low and high pH the tetramer dissociated, followed by aggregation to a "large" inactive form. The order of dissociation at least at low pH appeared to be two-step: from tetramer to dimers followed by dimer to monomers. The monomers then aggregate to a large aggregate, which is inactive. The presence of EDTA at pH 8 protected the enzyme against both inactivation and large aggregate formation. Dilution of the enzyme at pH 7 at room temperature results in driving the equilibrium from tetramer to dimer. The presence of malate with EDTA stabilizes the dimer as the predominant form at low protein concentrations. The presence of the substrate phosphoenolpyruvate alone and with magnesium and bicarbonate induced formation of the tetramer, and decreased the dissociation constant (Kd) of the tetrameric form. The inhibitor malate, however, induced dissociation of the tetramer as evidenced by an increase in the Kd of the tetramer.

The influence of pH on substrate form specificity of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase purified from Crassula argentea

Purified phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from both the crassulacean acid metabolism plant Crassula argentea and the C4 plant Zea mays was shown by kinetic studies at saturating fixed-varying concentrations of free mg2+ to selectively use the metal-complexed form of phosphoenolpyruvate when assayed at pH 8.0. A similar response to added magnesium at high free phosphoenolpyruvate concentrations was obtained for both enzymes, consistent with the use of the complex as the substrate. Kinetic studies at pH 7.0 indicated that at this pH the total concentration of phosphoenolpyruvate (including both free and metal-complexed forms) could be used by the enzyme from C.argentea while the C4 enzyme still utilized the complex. The loss of specificity induced by the decrease in the pH of the assay medium was accompanied by a decrease in the Km of this enzyme for phosphoenolpyruvate whatever the form considered and an increase in Vmax/Km. In contrast, a similar decrease of pH led to an increased Km of the C4 enzyme for phosphoenolpyruvate and a decrease of Vmax/Km. For the enzyme from C. argentea (previously shown to contain an essential arginine at the active site), protection of activity by the different forms of substrate against inactivation by the specific arginyl reagent 2,3-butanedione changes markedly with pH. At pH 8.1, the metal complex is the better protector while at pH 7.0 free phosphoenolpyruvate gives the best protection consistent with the observed kinetic changes in substrate form utilization. The relationship between the enzyme affinity for substrate, substrate specificity, and the requirement for magnesium for substrate turnover is discussed.

Cellular concentrations of enzymes and their substrates

The activity of crude and pure enzyme preparations as well as the molecular weight of these enzymes were obtained from the literature for several organisms. From these data enzyme concentrations were calculated and compared to the concentration(s) of their substrates in the same organism. The data are expressed as molar ratios of metabolite concentration to enzyme site concentration. Of the 140 ratios calculated, 88% were one or greater, indicating that in general substrates exceed their cognate enzyme concentrations. Of the 17 cases where enzyme exceeds metabolite concentration, 16 were in glycolysis. The data in general justify the use of enzyme kinetic mechanisms determined in vitro in the construction of dynamic models which simulate in vivo metabolism.

The dimeric form of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase isolated from maize: physical and kinetic properties

Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase purified from maize was a homodimer of molecular weight 200 kDa and was readily converted to a tetrameric form in the presence of Mg2+ plus PEP or Mg2+ alone. During the assay, the enzyme activity increased with time, reaching a steady state after a discernible lag, suggesting its hysteretic nature. The hystereses was not due to oligomerization of the enzyme as the lag time tau was independent of the enzyme concentration and the lag was not abolished on preincubation with 25 mM Mg2+, the condition under which the enzyme existed in tetrameric form. Nevertheless, the lag could be abolished on preincubating the enzyme with PEP plus Mg2+, indicating that the hystereses is due to a PEP plus Mg2(+)-induced slow transition of the enzyme to an activated state during the catalysis. During steady state, the enzyme showed cooperative kinetics for PEP and Mg2+ at pH 7. It had two binding sites with nearly 10-fold difference in affinities for PEP and Mg2+.

Kinetic evidence of the existence of a regulatory phosphoenolpyruvate binding site in maize leaf phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase

Phenylphosphate, a structural analog of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), was found to be an activator of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEP carboxylase) purified from maize leaves. This finding suggested the presence in the enzyme of a regulatory site, to which PEP could bind. We carried out kinetic studies on this enzyme using controlled concentrations of free PEP and of Mg-PEP complex and developed a theoretical kinetic model of the reaction. In summary, the main conclusions drawn from our results, and taken as assumptions of the model, were the following: (i) The affinity of the active site for the complex Mg-PEP is much higher than that for free PEP and Mg2+ ions, and therefore it can be considered that the preferential substrate of the PEP-catalyzed reaction is Mg-PEP. (ii) The enzyme has a regulatory site specific for free PEP, to which Mg2+ ions can not bind. (iii) The binding of free PEP, or an analog molecule, to this regulatory site yields a modified enzyme that has much lower apparent Km values and apparent Vmax values than the unmodified enzyme. So, free PEP behaves as an excellent activator of the reaction at subsaturating substrate concentrations, and as an inhibitor at saturating substrate concentrations. These findings may have important physiological implications on the regulation of the PEP carboxylase in vivo activity and, consequently, of the C4 pathway, since increased reaction rates would be obtained when the concentration of PEP rises, even at limiting Mg2+ concentrations.

A kinetic study of the effects of phosphate and organic phosphates on the activity of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from Crassula argentea

The effects of phosphate and several phosphate-containing compounds on the activity of purified phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) from the crassulacean acid metabolism plant, Crassula argentea, were investigated. When assayed at subsaturating phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) concentrations, low concentrations of most of the compounds tested were found to stimulate PEPC activity. This activation, variable in extent, was found in all cases to be competitive with glucose 6-phosphate (Glc-6-P) stimulation, suggesting that these effectors bind to the Glc-6-P site. At higher concentrations, depending upon the effector molecule studied, deactivation, inhibition, or no response was observed. More detailed studies were performed with Glc-6-P, AMP, phosphoglycolate, and phosphate. AMP had previously been shown to be a specific ligand for the Glc-6-P site. The main effect of Glc-6-P and AMP on the kinetic parameters was to decrease the apparent Km and increase Vmax/Km. AMP also caused a decrease in the Vmax of the reaction. In contrast, phosphoglycolate acted essentially as a competitive inhibitor increasing the apparent Km for PEP and decreasing Vmax/Km. Inorganic phosphate had a biphasic effect on the kinetic parameters, resulting in a transient decrease in Km followed by an increase of the apparent Km for PEP with increasing concentration of phosphate. The Vmax also was decreased with increasing phosphate concentrations. Further, the enzyme appeared to respond to the complex of phosphate with magnesium. In the presence of a saturating concentration of AMP, no activation but rather inhibition was observed with increasing phosphate concentration. This is consistent with the binding of phosphate to two separate sites--the Glc-6-P activation site and an inhibitory site, a phenomenon that may be occurring with other phosphate containing compounds. High concentrations of phosphate with magnesium were found to protect enzyme activity when PEPC, previously shown to contain an essential arginine at the active site, was incubated with the specific arginyl reagent 2,3-butanedione, consistent with the binding of phosphate at the active site. Data were successfully fitted to a rapid equilibrium model allowing for binding of the phosphate-magnesium complex to both the activation site and the active site which accounts for the activation/deactivation observed at low substrate concentrations. Effects on the Vmax of the reaction are also addressed. Factors controlling the differential affinity of various effectors to the active site or activation site appear to include charge distribution, size, and other steric factors.

Interaction of acetyl phosphate and carbamyl phosphate with plant phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase

Acetyl phosphate produced an increase in the maximum velocity (Vmax. for the carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate catalysed by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase. The limiting Vmax. was 22.2 mumol X min-1 X mg-1 (185% of the value without acetyl phosphate). This compound also decreased the Km for phosphoenolpyruvate to 0.18 mM. The apparent activation constants for acetyl phosphate were 1.6 mM and 0.62 mM in the presence of 0.5 and 4 mM-phosphoenolpyruvate respectively. Carbamyl phosphate produced an increase in Vmax. and Km for phosphoenolpyruvate. The variation of Vmax./Km with carbamyl phosphate concentration could be described by a model in which this compound interacts with the carboxylase at two different types of sites: an allosteric activator site(s) and the substrate-binding site(s). Carbamyl phosphate was hydrolysed by the action of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase. The hydrolysis produced Pi and NH4+ in a 1:1 relationship. Values of Vmax. and Km were 0.11 +/- 0.01 mumol of Pi X min-1 X mg-1 and 1.4 +/- 0.1 mM, respectively, in the presence of 10 mM-NaHCO3. If HCO3- was not added, these values were 0.075 +/- 0.014 mumol of Pi X min-1 X mg-1 and 0.76 +/- 0.06 mM. Vmax./Km showed no variation between pH 6.5 and 8.5. The reaction required Mg2+; the activation constants were 0.77 and 0.31 mM at pH 6.5 and 8.5 respectively. Presumably, carbamyl phosphate is hydrolysed by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase by a reaction the mechanism of which is related to that of the carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate.

Inhibition of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from maize by 2-phosphoglycollate

The phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from maize leaf was strongly inhibited by 2-phosphoglycollate. The pH of the reaction did not influence the extent of inhibition by 2-phosphoglycollate. The kinetic analysis of the inhibition data by Lineweaver-Burk method showed that 2-phosphoglycollate inhibition was competitive with respect to phosphoenolpyruvate. The secondary plot of the data showed nonlinearity indicating that there may be two 2-phosphoglycollate binding sites with Ki values of 0.4 mM and 0.16 mM. The biphasic nature of the inhibition was also evident when the data were plotted using the method of Dixon. 2-phosphoglycollate inhibition was uncompetitive with respect to Mg(2+) suggestting that it binds only to enzyme-Mg(2+) complex.

Purification and characterization of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from a cyanobacterium

Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxylase (EC 4.1.1.31) was purified 100-fold from the cyanobacterium Coccochloris peniocystis with a yield of 10%. A single isozyme was found at all stages of purification, and activity of other beta-carboxylase enzymes was not detected. The apparent molecular weight of the native enzyme was 560,000. Optimal activity was observed at pH 8.0 and 40 degrees C, yielding a Vmax of 8.84 mumol/mg of protein per min. The enzyme was not protected from heat inactivation by aspartate, malate, or oxalacetate. Michaelis-Menten reaction kinetics were observed for various concentrations of PEP, Mg2+, and HCO3-, yielding Km values of 0.6, 0.27, and 0.8 mM, respectively. Enzyme activity was inhibited by aspartate and tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates and noncompetitively inhibited by oxalacetate, while activation by any compound was not observed. However, the enzyme was sensitive to metabolic control at subsaturating substrate concentrations at neutral pH. These data indicate that cyanobacterial PEP carboxylase resembles the enzyme isolated from C3 plants (plants which initially incorporate CO2 into C3 sugars) and suggest that PEP carboxylase functions anapleurotically in cyanobacteria.

Active-site-directed inhibition of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from maize leaves by bromopyruvate

Bromopyruvate is a competitive inhibitor of maize leaf phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase with respect to phosphoenolpyruvate (Ki: 2.3 mM at pH 8). Relatively low concentrations of this compound completely and irreversibly inactivated the enzyme. The inactivation followed pseudo-first-order kinetics. The haloacid combines first with the carboxylase to give a reversible enzyme-bromopyruvate complex and then alkylates the enzyme. The maximum inactivation rate constant was 0.27 min-1 at pH 7.2 and 30 degrees C and the concentration of bromopyruvate giving half-maximum rate of inactivation was 1.8 mM. The inactivation was prevented by the substrate phosphoenolpyruvate, in the absence or presence of MgCl2, and by the competitive inhibitor P-glycolate. Malate afforded protection at pH 7 but not at pH 8. MgCl2 enhanced the inactivation when it was carried out at pH 7; its effect was mainly due to a decrease in the dissociation constant of the complex between bromopyruvate and the enzyme from 2 to 1.4 mM. This behavior was not observed at pH 8. Analysis of the inactivation at different pH suggests that a group of pKa near 7.5 is important for the binding of the reagent to the carboxylase. Determination of the number of sulfhydryl groups of the native and modified enzyme with [3H]-N-ethylmaleimide suggests that the inactivation correlates with the modification of thiol groups in the enzyme. The substrate prevented the modification of these groups. The results suggest that the alkylating reagent modifies cysteinyl residues at the phosphoenolpyruvate binding site of the carboxylase.

The enzymatic determination of bicarbonate and CO2 in reagents and buffer solutions

A method for the determination of bicarbonate in buffer solutions between pH 7.5 and 8.75 and in stock solutions of NaHCO3 is described. The HCO-3 is reacted with phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) in the presence of PEP carboxylase (EC 4.1.1.31) and the oxaloacetate formed reduced to malate by NADH in the reaction catalyzed by malate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.37). The extent of oxidation of NADH is measured spectrophotometrically. Experiments using standard solutions show that 1 mol of NADH is oxidized per mol of HCO-3 added. The method was used to establish the precautions needed to prepare buffer solutions containing less than 1% of the bicarbonate which would be present in the same buffers in equilibrium with air.

Insulin mediates the stimulation of pyruvate kinase by a dual mechanism

A radioimmunoassay specific for liver pyruvate kinase was used to determine the mechanism(s) involved in the insulin stimulation of this enzyme activity in chronically diabetic rats. Rats, made diabetic with alloxan, were fed on a high-carbohydrate (50%-sucrose) fat-free diet and treated with insulin for 12, 36 or 60 h. Livers were removed at the various times, a piece was kept for determination of glycogen, and the remainder was homogenized. The 100000 g supernatant was prepared and used for determination of pyruvate kinase activity and quantity. Glycogen increased to a maximum of approx. 7% by 12 h after insulin treatment, and was maintained at this elevated value for 60 h. Liver pyruvate kinase activity, which is depressed in diabetes, did not respond to insulin until 36 h of treatment, with a more substantial increase occurring by 60 h. Radioimmunoassay data indicated that the increase in activity was concomitant with a substantial increase in the quantity of the enzyme and a moderate increase in its specific activity. These results demonstrate that a dual mechanism, i.e. an increase in both the quantity and specific activity of the enzyme, regulates the insulin-mediated stimulation of liver pyruvate kinase in the diabetic rat.

Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from soybean nodule cytosol. Evidence for isoenzymes and kinetics of the most active component

Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (orthophosphate:oxaloacetate carboxylase (phosphorylating), EC 4.1.1.31) from plant cells of soybean nodules was studied to assess its role in providing carbon skeletons for aspartate and asparagine synthesis. The enzyme was purified 119-fold by (NH4)2SO4 fractionation and DEAE-cellulose, BioGel A-1.5m, and hydroxyapatite chromatography. Five activity bands were resolved with discontinuous polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. A small quantity of enzyme from the most active band was separated from the others by preparative electrophoresis. The apparent Michaelis constants of this enzyme for phosphoenolpyruvate and HCO3- were 9.4.10(-2) and 4.1.10(-1) mM, respectively. A series of metabolite tested at 1 mM had no significant effect on enzyme activity. These experiments indicate that the major factors directly controlling phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase activity in vivo are phosphoenolpypyruvate and HCO3- concentrations.

Two forms of NADP-dependent malic enzyme in expanding maize leaves

Etiolated maize leaves (Zea mays L.) contain a major isozyme of NADP-dependent malic enzyme (L-malate dehydrogenase, decarboxylating, EC 1.1.1.40) having an isoelectric point of 5.28±0.03, a Km (L-malate) 0.3-0.6 mM at pH 7.45; a broad pH optimum around pH 6.9 under the conditions of assay; a molecular weight of 280,000 (sometimes accompanied by a minor component of 150,000); and an NAD-dependent activity about 1/50 the NADP-dependent activity. This isozyme, resembling the NADP-malic enzyme of vertebrates, is labeled type 1. The dominant isozyme of young green leaves (type 2) has, however, a pI 4.90±0.03, a Km (L-malate) 0.10-0.15 mM, a pH optimum of 8, and a molecular weight of 280,000. It is also more stable and exhibits an appreciable NAD-dependent activity (1/5-1/7 the NADP activity). Both isozymes show linear kinetics, dependence on Mn or Mg ions, similar Km (NADP(+)), and the typical increase of Km for L-malate with increasing pH values. Type 1 isozyme of maize is assumed to be cytosolic. Type 2 corresponds in each property to the chloroplast enzyme of bundle-sheath cells. It is present at a low level in etiolated leaves and develops to a high specific activity (up to 100 nmol min(-1) mg protein(-1) by 150 h illumination) during photosynthetic differentiation, replacing the type 1 form.

Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from the crassulacean plant Bryophyllum fedtschenkoi Hamet et Perrier. Purification, molecular and kinetic properties

Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from the Crassulacean plant Bryophyllum fedtschenkoi has been purified to homogenetity by DEAE-cellulose treatment, (NH4)2SO4 fractionation,, and chromatography on DEAE-cellulose and hydroxyapatite. Poly(ethylene glycol) is required in the extraction medium to obtain maximum enzyme activity. The purified enzyme has a specific activity of about 26 units/mg of protein at 25 degrees C. It gives a single band on sodium dodecyl sulphate/polyacrylamide-gel electrophoresis, corresponding to a mol.wt. of 105,000, and gives a single band on non-denaturing gel electrophoresis at pH8.4. Cross-linking studies at pH8.0 indicate that the subunit structure is tetrameric but that the dimer may also be an important unit of polymerization. Gel filtration results at pH6.7 confirm that the native enzyme is tetrameric with a concentration-dependent dissociation to a dimer. The kinetic behaviour is characterized by (i) relatively small variations in maximum velocity between pH5.5 and 9.0 with a double optimum, (ii) a reversible temperature-dependent inactivation between 30 and 45 degrees C, (iii) inhibition by malate, which is pH-sensitive, and (iv) almost Michaelis-Menten behaviour with phosphoenolpyruvate as the varied ligand but sigmoidal behaviour under suitable conditions with malate as the varied ligand. The findings are related to other studies to the possible role phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase in controlling a circadian rhythm of CO2 fixation.

Development of C4 photosynthesis in sugar cane: Changes in properties of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase during greening

Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxylase extracted from etiolated and greening sugar cane (a Saccharum hybrid) displayed different properties in terms of DEAE-cellulose elution profile and activation by glucose-6-phosphate. During the first 20 hours of greening, no increase in extractable PEP carboxylase activity was observed, but ionic and allosteric properties of the enzyme changed, becoming similar to those found for the enzyme from light-grown cane. Density labelling studies with deuterium oxide provided no evidence for either de novo synthesis or turnover of the enzyme during this period, or during the following 24 hours of greening. These results are discussed in relation to enzyme control mechanisms and the development of the C4 pathway in photosynthesis.