Energy transduction in photosynthetic bacteria. IV. Light-dependent ATPase in photosynthetic membranes from Rhodopseudomonas capsulata

ADP-Inhibition of H+-FOF1-ATP Synthase

H+-F_OF₁-ATP synthase (F-ATPase, F-type ATPase, F_OF₁ complex) catalyzes ATP synthesis from ADP and inorganic phosphate in eubacteria, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and some archaea. ATP synthesis is powered by the transmembrane proton transport driven by the proton motive force (PMF) generated by the respiratory or photosynthetic electron transport chains. When the PMF is decreased or absent, ATP synthase catalyzes the reverse reaction, working as an ATP-dependent proton pump. The ATPase activity of the enzyme is regulated by several mechanisms, of which the most conserved is the non-competitive inhibition by the MgADP complex (ADP-inhibition). When ADP binds to the catalytic site without phosphate, the enzyme may undergo conformational changes that lock bound ADP, resulting in enzyme inactivation. PMF can induce release of inhibitory ADP and reactivate ATP synthase; the threshold PMF value required for enzyme reactivation might exceed the PMF for ATP synthesis. Moreover, membrane energization increases the catalytic site affinity to phosphate, thereby reducing the probability of ADP binding without phosphate and preventing enzyme transition to the ADP-inhibited state. Besides phosphate, oxyanions (e.g., sulfite and bicarbonate), alcohols, lauryldimethylamine oxide, and a number of other detergents can weaken ADP-inhibition and increase ATPase activity of the enzyme. In this paper, we review the data on ADP-inhibition of ATP synthases from different organisms and discuss the in vivo role of this phenomenon and its relationship with other regulatory mechanisms, such as ATPase activity inhibition by subunit ε and nucleotide binding in the noncatalytic sites of the enzyme. It should be noted that in Escherichia coli enzyme, ADP-inhibition is relatively weak and rather enhanced than prevented by phosphate.

Modulation of coupling in the Escherichia coli ATP synthase by ADP and Pi: Role of the ε subunit C-terminal domain

The ε-subunit of ATP-synthase is an endogenous inhibitor of the hydrolysis activity of the complex and its α-helical C-terminal domain (εCTD) undergoes drastic changes among at least two different conformations. Even though this domain is not essential for ATP synthesis activity, there is evidence for its involvement in the coupling mechanism of the pump. Recently, it was proposed that coupling of the ATP synthase can vary as a function of ADP and P_i concentration. In the present work, we have explored the possible role of the εCTD in this ADP- and P_i-dependent coupling, by examining an εCTD-lacking mutant of Escherichia coli. We show that the loss of P_i-dependent coupling can be observed also in the εCTD-less mutant, but the effects of P_i on both proton pumping and ATP hydrolysis were much weaker in the mutant than in the wild-type. We also show that the εCTD strongly influences the binding of ADP to a very tight binding site (half-maximal effect≈1nM); binding at this site induces higher coupling in EF_OF₁ and increases responses to P_i. It is proposed that one physiological role of the εCTD is to regulate the kinetics and affinity of ADP/P_i binding, promoting ADP/P_i-dependent coupling.

ATP hydrolysis in ATP synthases can be differently coupled to proton transport and modulated by ADP and phosphate: a structure based model of the mechanism

In the ATP synthases of Escherichia coli ADP and phosphate exert an apparent regulatory role on the efficiency of proton transport coupled to the hydrolysis of ATP. Both molecules induce clearly biphasic effects on hydrolysis and proton transfer. At intermediate concentrations (approximately 0.5-1 microM and higher) ADP inhibits hydrolysis and proton transfer; a quantitative analysis of the fluxes however proves that the coupling efficiency remains constant in this concentration range. On the other hand at nanomolar concentrations of ADP (a level obtainable only using an enzymatic ATP regenerating system) the efficiency of proton transport drops progressively, while the rate of hydrolysis remains high. Phosphate, at concentrations>or=0.1 mM, inhibits hydrolysis only if ADP is present at sufficiently high concentrations, keeping the coupling efficiency constant. At lower ADP levels phosphate is, however, necessary for an efficiently coupled catalytic cycle. We present a model for a catalytic cycle of ATP hydrolysis uncoupled from the transport of protons. The model is based on the available structures of bovine and yeast F1 and on the known binding affinities for ADP and Pi of the catalytic sites in their different functional states. The binding site related to the inhibitory effects of Pi (in association with ADP) is identified as the alphaHCbetaHC site, the pre-release site for the hydrolysis products. We suggest, moreover, that the high affinity site, associated with the operation of an efficient proton transport, could coincide with a conformational state intermediate between the alphaTPbetaTP and the alphaDPbetaDP (similar to the transition state of the hydrolysis/synthesis reaction) that does not strongly bind the ligands and can exchange them rather freely with the external medium. The emptying of this site can lead to an unproductive hydrolysis cycle that occurs without a net rotation of the central stalk and, consequently, does not translocate protons.

Met23Lys mutation in subunit gamma of F(O)F(1)-ATP synthase from Rhodobacter capsulatus impairs the activation of ATP hydrolysis by protonmotive force

H(+)-F(O)F(1)-ATP synthase couples proton flow through its membrane portion, F(O), to the synthesis of ATP in its headpiece, F(1). Upon reversal of the reaction the enzyme functions as a proton pumping ATPase. Even in the simplest bacterial enzyme the ATPase activity is regulated by several mechanisms, involving inhibition by MgADP, conformational transitions of the epsilon subunit, and activation by protonmotive force. Here we report that the Met23Lys mutation in the gamma subunit of the Rhodobacter capsulatus ATP synthase significantly impaired the activation of ATP hydrolysis by protonmotive force. The impairment in the mutant was due to faster enzyme deactivation that was particularly evident at low ATP/ADP ratio. We suggest that the electrostatic interaction of the introduced gammaLys23 with the DELSEED region of subunit beta stabilized the ADP-inhibited state of the enzyme by hindering the rotation of subunit gamma rotation which is necessary for the activation.

Photosynthesis research in Italy: a review

This historical review was compiled and edited by Giorgio Forti, whereas the other authors of the different sections are listed alphabetically after his name, below the title of the paper; they are also listed in the individual sections. This review deals with the research on photosynthesis performed in several Italian laboratories during the last 50 years; it includes research done, in collaboration, at several international laboratories, particularly USA, UK, Switzerland, Hungary, Germany, France, Finland, Denmark, and Austria. Wherever pertinent, references are provided, especially to other historical papers in Govindjee et al. [Govindjee, Beatty JT, Gest H, Allen JF (eds) (2005) Discoveries in Photosynthesis. Springer, Dordrecht]. This paper covers the physical and chemical events starting with the absorption of a quantum of light by a pigment molecule to the conversion of the radiation energy into the stable chemical forms of the reducing power and of ATP. It describes the work done on the structure, function and regulation of the photosynthetic apparatus in higher plants, unicellular algae and in photosynthetic bacteria. Phenomena such as photoinhibition and the protection from it are also included. Research in biophysics of photosynthesis in Padova (Italy) is discussed by G.M. Giacometti and G. Giacometti (2006).

Sulfite stimulates the ATP hydrolysis activity of but not proton translocation by the ATP synthase of Rhodobacter capsulatus and interferes with its activation by delta muH+

Sulfite stimulates the rate of ATP hydrolysis by the ATP synthase in chromatophores of Rhodobacter capsulatus. The stimulated activity is inhibited by oligomycin. The activation takes place also in uncoupled chromatophores. The activation consists in an increase of about 12-15-fold of the Vmax for the ATP hydrolysis reaction, while the Km for MgATP is unaffected at 0.16+/-0.03 mM. The dependence of Vmax on the sulfite concentration follows a hyperbolic pattern with half maximum effect at 12 mM. Sulfite affects the ability of the enzyme in translocating protons. Concomitant measurements of the rate of ATP hydrolysis and of ATP-induced protonic flows demonstrate that at sulfite concentrations of greater than 10 mM the hydrolytic reaction becomes progressively uncoupled from the process of proton translocation. This is accompanied by an inhibition of ATP synthesis, either driven by light or by artificially induced ionic gradients. ATP synthesis is totally inhibited at concentrations of at least 80 mM. Sulfite interferes with the mechanism of activation by delta muH+. Low concentrations of this anion (< or = 2 mM) prevent the activation by delta muH+. At higher concentrations a marked stimulation of the activity prevails, regardless of the occurrence of a delta muH+ across the membrane. Phosphate at millimolar concentrations can reverse the inhibition by sulfite. These experimental results can be simulated by a model assuming multiple and competitive equilibria for phosphate or sulfite binding with two binding sites for the two ligands (for sulfite K1S = 0.26 and K2S = 37 mM, and for phosphate K1P = 0.06 and K2P = 4.22 mM), and in which the state bound only to one sulfite molecule is totally inactive in hydrolysis. The competition between phosphate and sulfite is consistent with the molecular structures of the two ligands and of the enzyme.

ATP synthesis in chromatophores driven by artificially induced ion gradients

An electrochemical potential difference for protons (delta mu H+) across the membrane of bacterial chromatophores was induced by an artificially generated pH difference (delta pH) and a K+/valinomycin diffusion potential, delta phi. The initial rate of ATP synthesis was measured with a rapid-mixing quenched-flow apparatus in the time range between 70 ms and 30 s after the acid-base transition. The rate of ATP synthesis depends exponentially on delta pH. Increasing diffusion potentials shift the delta pH dependency to lower delta pH values. Diffusion potentials were calculated from the Goldman equation. Using estimated permeability coefficients, the rate of ATP synthesis depends only on the electrochemical potential difference of protons irrespective of the relative contribution of delta pH and delta phi.

Correlation between ATP synthesis and the decay of the arotenoid band shift after single flash activation of chromatophores from Rhodopseudomonas capsulata

ATP synthesis and the acceleration of the decay of the carotenoid absorption band shift after single flash excitation of Rhodopseudomonas capsulata chromatophores were compared. The two processes behave similarly with respect to: (1) ADP and Pi concentration; (2) inhibition by efrapeptin and venturicidin, and (3) inhibition by valinomycin/K+ and by ionophores. Taken together with earlier evidence for the electrochromic nature of the carotenoid band shift the data support the contention that positive charge moves outwards across the chromatophore membrane during ATP synthesis and justify the method for determination of the H+/ATP ratio (Petty, K.M. and Jackson, J.B. (1979) FEBS Lett. 97, 367-372). The ability of nucleotide diphosphates in the presence of Pi and Mg2+ to give rise to the acceleration of the carotenoid shift decay closely correlates with the rate of phosphorylation of the nucleotides in steady-state light. Nucleotide triphosphates enhance the decay in parallel with their rate of hydrolysis. Adenylyl imidodiphosphate is itself without effect on the decay of the carotenoid shift and it does not prevent the ADP-induced acceleration. The analogue does prevent the ATP effect but only after repeated flashes.

Kinetic factors limiting the synthesis of ATP by chromatophores exposed to short flash excitation

ATP synthesis was measured after chromatophores from Rhodopseudomonas capsulata had been subjected to illumination by single turnover flashes fired at variable frequencies. Three processes were examined, which under different conditions can limit the net yield of ATP. (1) A process with an apparent relaxation time of 10-20 ms. This reaction probably limits the rate of ATP synthesis in continuous illumination. It has similar time dependence to the stimulation of the carotenoid shift decay by ADP after a single flash. (2) An active state of the ATPase only persists when the chromatophores are excited more often than once in 10 s. This state decays with similar kinetics to the entire carotenoid shift decay. Full activation is achieved after two flashes. (1) and (2) are not significantly affected by concentrations of antimycin A sufficient to block electron flow through the cytochrome b/c2 oxidoreductase and abolish phase III in the generation of the carotenoid shift. (3) In the presence of antimycin A, after the third, fourth and subsequent flashes ATP synthesis is limited by the quantity of reducing equivalents transported through the reaction centre rather than by the level of the electrochemical proton gradient.

The stimulation of photophosphorylation and ATPase by artificial redox mediators in chromatophores of Rhodopseudomonas capsulata at different redox potentials

(1) Inhibition of cyclic phosphorylation in chromatophores of Rhodopseudomonas capsulata by antimycin A can be fully reversed by artificial redox mediators, provided the ambient redox potential is maintained around 200 mV. The redox mediator need not be a hydrogen carrier in its reduced form, N-methyl-phenazonium methosulfate and N,N,N',N'-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine being equally effective. However, the mediator needs to be lipophilic. Endogenous cyclic phosphorylation is fastest around 130 mV. A shift to 200 mV can also be observed if high concentrations of artificial redox mediator are present in the absence of antimycin. (2) ATPase activity of Rhodopseudomonas capsulata, in the light as well as in the dark, activated or not activated by inorganic phosphate, can also be stimulated by N-methylphenazonium methosulfate. This stimulation is highest at redox potentials between 60 to 80 mV and is sensitive to antimycin A. In this case N,N,N',N-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine is much less effective.

Affinity chromatography of H+-translocating adenosine triphosphatase isolated by chloroform extraction of Rhodospirillum rubrum chromatophores. Modification of binding affinity by divalent cations and activating anions

1. ATPase isolated from Rhodospirillum rubrum by chloroform extraction and purified by gel filtration or affinity chromatography shows three bands (alpha, beta and gamma) upon electrophoresis in sodium dodecyl sulphate. 2. Ca2+-ATPase activity of the preparation is inhibited by aurovertin and efrapeptin but not by oligomycin. Activity may be inhibited by treatment with 4-chloro-7-nitrobenzofurazan and subsequently restored by dithiothreitol. 3. The enzyme fails to reconstitute photophosphorylation in chromatophores depleted of ATPase by sonic irradiation. 4. Most of the active protein from the crude chloroform extract binds to an affinity chromatography column bearing an immobilised ADP analogue but not to a column bearing immobilised pyrophosphate. 5. In the absence of divalent cations, a component with a very high specific activity for Ca2+-ATPase is eluted from the column by 1.6 mM ATP. This protein migrates asa single band on 5% polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and only possesses three subunits. At 12 mM ATP an inactive protein is eluted which does not run on acid or alkali polyacrylamide gels and shows a complex subunit structure. 6. ATPase preparations prepared by acetone extraction or by sonic irradiation of chromatophores may also be purified 10-fold by affinity chromatography. 7. The inclusion of 5 mM MgCl2 or CaCl2 during affinity chromatography of chloroform ATPase increases the capacity of the column for the enzyme and demands a higher eluting concentration of ATP. 8. When the enzyme is more than 90% inhibited by efrapeptin or 4-chloro-7-nitrobenzofurazan, the binding characteristics of the enzyme are not affected. 9. 10 mM Na2SO3, which greatly stimulates the Ca2+- and Mg2+-dependent ATPase activity of the enzyme and increases Ki (ADP) for Ca2+-ATPase from 50 to 850 micron, prevents binding to the affinity column. Binding may be restored by the addition of divalent cations. 10. Na2SO3 increases the rate of ATP hydrolysis, ATP-driven H+ translocation and ATP-driven transhydrogenase in chromatophores. 11. It is proposed that anions such as sulphite convert the chromatophore ATPase into a form which is a more efficient energy transducer.

Photoinactivation of photophosphorylation and dark ATPase in Rhodospirillum rubrum chromatophores

Preillumination of Rhodospirillum rubrum chromatophores with strong, far-red light in the presence of phenazine methosulfate under non-phosphorylation conditions results in a selective, irreversible inactivation (typically about 70%) of photophosphorylation and of uncoupler-stimulated dark ATPase. The time course of the photoinactivation is similar to the light-on kinetics of the light-induced proton uptake in the absence of ADP. Only little photoinactivation occurs when the uncoupler carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone is present or when phenazine methosulfate is absent during the preillumination, indicating that the reaction occurs only when the membrane is energized. Phosphorylation conditions offer a practically complete protection against the photoinactivation. Inorganic phosphate, Mg2+ or ADP do not provide a significant protection against the photoinactivation, nor does ATP. The pH-dependence of the reaction(s) leading to photoinactivation may indicate that a partial reaction of the photophosphorylation process (perhaps only a conformational change of the coupling factor) precedes the photoinactivation.

The control of the adenosine triphosphatase of Rhodospirillum rubrum chromatophores by divalent cations and the membrane high energy state

1. The rate of ATP hydrolysis, catalysed by Rhodospirilum rubrum chromatophores is accelerated by low concentrations and inhibited by high concentrations of uncoupling agent. 2. The inhibition at high concentrations of uncoupling agent is potentiated by the presence of free magnesium ions. At low uncoupler concentrations magnesium has no effect on the rate of ATP hydrolysis. 3. Inhibition of ATP hydrolysis by high concentrations of uncoupling agent and free magnesium ions is reversed by illumination. Illumination has less effect at low magnesium concentrations. 4. Free calcium ions inhibit ATP hydrolysis independently of the coupled state of the membrane. 5. Under coupled conditions, magnesium ions can overcome the inhibition induced by calcium. The two ions complete for the same site on the enzyme. 6. Inhibition by free magnesium in highly uncoupled chromatophores and inhibition by free calcium are both non-competitive with respect to the divalent cation-ATP substrate. 7. These data are consistent with a model in which divalent cations can bind to a site on the enzyme which is distinct from the substrate site. The regulation of the enzyme activity by the high energy state of the membrane is dependent on the occupant of this site.

The extent of the stimulated electrical potential decay under phosphorylating conditions and the H+/ATP ratio in Rhodopseudomonas sphaeroides chromatophores following short flash excitation

1. In chromatophores from Rps. sphaeroides, the stimulation by ADP and Pi of the electric potential decay indicated by the carotenoid shift is greater than the stimulation of the decay of pH change indicated by the colour change of added cresol red under similar conditions. This difference is attributed to H+ consumption during the synthesis of ATP. The ratio of H+ translocated across the membrane to ATP synthesized was estimated to be approximately 1.7 H+/ATP. 2. The stimulation of the electrical potential decay by ADP and Pi was found to be a constant fraction (10%) of the total decay when the flash intensity was varied. No 'critical' or 'threshold' potential was observed. 3. The stimulated electrical potential decay after a second flash, given within a few seconds of the first, was related to the amplitude of the electrical potential produced by the second flash (10%) but neither to the dark time between the flashes, nor to the total extent of the electrical potential above the dark level. These results are consistent with two hypotheses (a) the chromatophores are a mixed population of vesicles, only a small fraction (10%) of which possess an active ATP synthesizing system (b) the activity of the ATP synthesizing system, though driven by a proton motive force, is controlled by electron transport processess. If alternative (a) is correct then the overall single turnover flash yield of 1 ATP per 1470 bacteriochlorophyll measured in (1) would mean that the yield of the active vesicles is approximately 10 ATP per 1470 bacteriochlorophyll or 30 ATP per vesicle. 4. The stimulation of the electrical potential decay by ADP and Pi is approximately 40% less in antimycin-treated chromatophores. It is shown that this is probably a consequence of antimycin-inhibited H+-release on the inside of the chromatophore vesicles following a flash.

Energy transduction in photosynthetic bacteria. VII. Inhibition of the coupling ATPase by N-ethylmaleimide related to the energized state of the membrane

N-Ethylmaleimide, at millimolar concentrations, irreversibily inhibits photophosphorylation and ATPase activity of photosynthetic membranes from Rhodopseudomonas capsulata. The inhibitory effect of N-ethylmaleimide is evident only the membranes are preincubated with the inhibitor in the light and in the absence of phosphorylation substrates. ADP and orthophosphate (or arsenate) exert a protective effect against the inhibition if they are present during the preillumination stage. The energization of the membrane by ATP hydrolysis, measured as ATP-induced quenching of 9-aminoacridine fluorescence, also is inhibited irreversibly by N-ethylmaleimide. Uncouplers protect the ATPase from inhibition by N-ethylmaleimide at concentrations at which they inhibit photophosphorylation. The ATPase, as measured either in the dark or in the light, is also inhibited by carbonylcyanide p-trifluoromethoxypenylhydrazone in parallel with photophosphorylation. These results are interpreted as evidence that the high-energy state of the membrane induces a conformational change of the ATPase, making it sensitive to attack by N-ethylmaleimide; this conformational change might be related to the active state of the ATPase.

Energy transduction in photosynthetic bacteria. VIII. Activation of the energy-transducing ATPase by inorganic phosphate

ATPase activity and ATP-induced energization of photosynthetic membranes from Rhodopseudomonas capsulata are stimulated by phosphate; the maximum stimulatory effect occurs at a concentration between 1 and 2 mM. The sensitivity of the ATPase to oligomycin increases in the presence of phosphate since all the Pi-stimulated activity is inhibited by this antibiotic. Aurovertin, which has no effect on ATPase in the absence of phosphate, inhibits completely the activity elicited by this anion. The addition of Pi induces a substantial increase in the V of ATPase activity without changing the affinity of the enzyme for ATP or ADP. Arsenate, at the same concentrations, produces effects very similar to those of phosphate. The stimulation by arsenate of the transfer of energy from ATP to the membrane suggests a non-hydrolytic role of this anion as a modifier of the ATPase activity.