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Janssens LK, Van Uytfanghe K, Williams JB, Hering KW, Iula DM, Stove CP. Investigation of the intrinsic cannabinoid activity of hemp-derived and semisynthetic cannabinoids with β-arrestin2 recruitment assays-and how this matters for the harm potential of seized drugs. Arch Toxicol 2024; 98:2619-2630. [PMID: 38735004 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-024-03769-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
Cultivation of industrial low-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) hemp has created an oversupply of cannabidiol (CBD)-rich products. The fact that phytocannabinoids, including CBD, can be used as precursors to synthetically produce a range of THC variants-potentially located in a legal loophole-has led to a diversification of cannabis recreational drug markets. 'Hemp-compliant', 'hemp-derived' and 'semisynthetic' cannabinoid products are emerging and being advertised as (legal) alternatives for Δ9-THC. This study included a large panel (n = 30) of THC isomers, homologs, and analogs that might be derived via semisynthetic procedures. As a proxy for the abuse potential of these compounds, we assessed their potential to activate the CB1 cannabinoid receptor with a β-arrestin2 recruitment bioassay (picomolar-micromolar concentrations). Multiple THC homologs (tetrahydrocannabihexol, THCH; tetrahydrocannabiphorol, THCP; tetrahydrocannabinol-C8, THC-C8) and THC analogs (hexahydrocannabinol, HHC; hexahydrocannabiphorol, HHCP) were identified that showed higher potential for CB1 activation than Δ9-THC, based on either higher efficacy (Emax) or higher potency (EC50). Structure-activity relationships were assessed for Δ9-THC and Δ8-THC homologs encompassing elongated alkyl chains. Additionally, stereoisomer-specific differences in CB1 activity were established for various THC isomers (Δ7-THC, Δ10-THC) and analogs (HHC, HHCP). Evaluation of the relative abundance of 9(S)-HHC and 9(R)-HHC epimers in seized drug material revealed varying epimeric compositions between batches. Increased abundance of the less active 9(S)-HHC epimer empirically resulted in decreased potency, but sustained efficacy for the resulting diastereomeric mixture. In conclusion, monitoring of semisynthetic cannabinoids is encouraged as the dosing and the relative composition of stereoisomers can impact the harm potential of these drugs, relative to Δ9-THC products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liesl K Janssens
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis - Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Katleen Van Uytfanghe
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis - Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jeffrey B Williams
- Forensic Chemistry Division, Cayman Chemical Company, Ann Arbor, MI, 48108, USA
| | - Kirk W Hering
- Forensic Chemistry Division, Cayman Chemical Company, Ann Arbor, MI, 48108, USA
| | - Donna M Iula
- Forensic Chemistry Division, Cayman Chemical Company, Ann Arbor, MI, 48108, USA
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis - Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
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Caprari C, Ferri E, Vandelli MA, Citti C, Cannazza G. An emerging trend in Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPSs): designer THC. J Cannabis Res 2024; 6:21. [PMID: 38702834 PMCID: PMC11067227 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-024-00226-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Since its discovery as one of the main components of cannabis and its affinity towards the cannabinoid receptor CB1, serving as a means to exert its psychoactivity, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) has inspired medicinal chemists throughout history to create more potent derivatives. Initially, the goal was to synthesize chemical probes for investigating the molecular mechanisms behind the pharmacology of Δ9-THC and finding potential medical applications. The unintended consequence of this noble intent has been the proliferation of these compounds for recreational use. This review comprehensively covers the most exhaustive number of THC-like cannabinoids circulating on the recreational market. It provides information on the chemistry, synthesis, pharmacology, analytical assessment, and experiences related to the psychoactive effects reported by recreational users on online forums. Some of these compounds can be found in natural cannabis, albeit in trace amounts, while others are entirely artificial. Moreover, to circumvent legal issues, many manufacturers resort to semi-synthetic processes starting from legal products extracted from hemp, such as cannabidiol (CBD). Despite the aim to encompass all known THC-like molecules, new species emerge on the drug users' pipeline each month. Beyond posing a significantly high public health risk due to unpredictable and unknown side effects, scientific research consistently lags behind the rapidly evolving recreational market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristian Caprari
- Clinical and Experimental Medicine PhD Program, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, 41125, Italy
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, Modena, 41125, Italy
| | - Elena Ferri
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, Modena, 41125, Italy
| | - Maria Angela Vandelli
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, Modena, 41125, Italy
| | - Cinzia Citti
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, Modena, 41125, Italy.
- Institute of Nanotechnology of the National Council of Research - CNR NANOTEC, Campus Ecotekne, Via Monteroni, Lecce, 73100, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe Cannazza
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via G. Campi 103, Modena, 41125, Italy.
- Institute of Nanotechnology of the National Council of Research - CNR NANOTEC, Campus Ecotekne, Via Monteroni, Lecce, 73100, Italy.
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DeGregorio MW, Kao CJ, Wurz GT. Complexity of Translating Analytics to Recent Cannabis Use and Impairment. J AOAC Int 2024; 107:493-505. [PMID: 38410076 DOI: 10.1093/jaoacint/qsae015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
While current analytical methodologies can readily identify cannabis use, definitively establishing recent use within the impairment window has proven to be far more complex, requiring a new approach. Recent studies have shown no direct relationship between impairment and Δ9-tetra-hydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) concentrations in blood or saliva, making legal "per se" Δ9-THC limits scientifically unjustified. Current methods that focus on Δ9-THC and/or metabolite concentrations in blood, saliva, urine, or exhaled breath can lead to false-positive results for recent use due to the persistence of Δ9-THC well outside of the typical 3-4 h window of potential impairment following cannabis inhalation. There is also the issue of impairment due to other intoxicating substances-just because a subject exhibits signs of impairment and cannabis use is detected does not rule out the involvement of other drugs. Compounding the matter is the increasing popularity of hemp-derived cannabidiol (CBD) products following passage of the 2018 Farm Bill, which legalized industrial hemp in the United States. Many of these products contain varying levels of Δ9-THC, which can lead to false-positive tests for cannabis use. Furthermore, hemp-derived CBD is used to synthesize Δ8-THC, which possesses psychoactive properties similar to Δ9-THC and is surrounded by legal controversy. For accuracy, analytical methods must be able to distinguish the various THC isomers, which have identical masses and exhibit immunological cross-reactivity. A new testing approach has been developed based on exhaled breath and blood sampling that incorporates kinetic changes and the presence of key cannabinoids to detect recent cannabis use within the impairment window without the false-positive results seen with other methods. The complexity of determining recent cannabis use that may lead to impairment demands such a comprehensive method so that irresponsible users can be accurately detected without falsely accusing responsible users who may unjustly suffer harsh, life-changing consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael W DeGregorio
- RCU Labs, Inc., 408 Sunrise Ave, Roseville, CA 95661-4123, United States
- Professor Emeritus, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, United States
| | - Chiao-Jung Kao
- RCU Labs, Inc., 408 Sunrise Ave, Roseville, CA 95661-4123, United States
| | - Gregory T Wurz
- RCU Labs, Inc., 408 Sunrise Ave, Roseville, CA 95661-4123, United States
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Haghdoost M, Brumar D, Geiling B, Brunstetter M, Bonn-Miller MO. Chemistry, Crystal Structure, and In Vitro Receptor Binding of Δ10-THC Isomers. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2023; 8:S1-S10. [PMID: 37721987 DOI: 10.1089/can.2023.0045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: The psychoactive properties of Δ10-THC isomers (trans- and cis-Δ10-THC) are poorly understood. To shed more light on the biological effects of these compounds, we studied in vitro receptor binding of Δ10-THC isomers at cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors. Materials and Methods: We first optimized and simplified catalytic synthesis of trans- and cis-Δ10-THC to allow their safe and cheap large-scale synthesis. In our synthesis, BuLi was replaced with KOtBu, and DMSO/anisole or NEt3/heptane solvent systems were used instead of HMPA/toluene. Single crystal X-ray analysis confirmed the structure of both isomers and the configuration of their chiral centers. Results: In the radioligand replacement assay, both isomers showed strong affinity toward the CB1 receptor, with IC50=29.1 nM for the trans isomer and IC50=294.2 nM for the cis counterpart. However, the IC50 values were significantly higher than that of Δ9-THC (2.1 nM), a naturally occurring psychoactive component of cannabis sativa, suggesting a lower affinity of Δ10-THCs toward this receptor. In function assays, in contrast to Δ9-THC, both isomers failed to show any agonist properties at concentrations up to 10 μM suggesting a lack of THC-like psychoactivity for trans- and cis-Δ10-THC. Conclusions: Our results established Δ10-THC isomers among antagonists of the CB1 receptor as both cis and trans isomers antagonized CP55,490 with IC50=460 nM for trans and IC50=1040 nM for cis. This functional property has not been previously observed for any other THC isomers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ben Geiling
- Canopy Growth Corporation, Smith Falls, Canada
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Thin-layer chromatography on silver nitrate-impregnated silica gel for analysis of homemade tetrahydrocannabinol mixtures. Forensic Toxicol 2021; 40:125-131. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-021-00592-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Banister SD, Arnold JC, Connor M, Glass M, McGregor IS. Dark Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol. ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:2160-2175. [PMID: 30689342 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis ( Cannabis sativa) is the most widely used illicit drug in the world, with an estimated 192 million users globally. The main psychoactive component of cannabis is (-)- trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), a compound with a diverse range of pharmacological actions. The unique and distinctive intoxication caused by Δ9-THC primarily reflects partial agonist action at central cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptors. Δ9-THC is an approved therapeutic treatment for a range of conditions, including chronic pain, chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting, and multiple sclerosis, and is being investigated in indications such as anorexia nervosa, agitation in dementia, and Tourette's syndrome. It is available as a regulated pharmaceutical in products such as Marinol, Sativex, and Namisol as well as in an ever-increasing range of unregistered medicinal and recreational cannabis products. While cannabis is an ancient medicament, contemporary use is embroiled in legal, scientific, and social controversy, much of which relates to the potential hazards and benefits of Δ9-THC itself. Robust contemporary debate surrounds the therapeutic value of Δ9-THC in different diseases, its capacity to produce psychosis and cognitive impairment, and the addictive and "gateway" potential of the drug. This review will provide a profile of the chemistry, pharmacology, and therapeutic uses of Δ9-THC as well as the historical and societal import of this unique, distinctive, and ubiquitous psychoactive substance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel D. Banister
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia
- Faculty of Science and School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Jonathon C. Arnold
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia
- School of Medical Science and Discipline of Pharmacology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Mark Connor
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Macquarie Park, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Michelle Glass
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Iain S. McGregor
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia
- Faculty of Science and School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
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Abstract
Over the past decade, there has been a growth of interest in the translation of microfluidic systems into real-world clinical practice, especially for use in point-of-care or near patient settings. While initial fabrication advances in microfluidics involved mainly the etching of silicon and glass, the economics of scaling of these materials is not amendable for point-of-care usage where single-test applications force cost considerations to be kept low and throughput high. As such, materials base more consistent with point-of-care needs is required. In this manuscript, the fabrication of a hot embossed, through-hole low-density polyethylene ensembles derived from an anisotropically etched silicon wafer is discussed. This semi-opaque polymer that can be easily sterilized and recycled provides low background noise for fluorescence measurements and yields more affordable cost than other thermoplastics commonly used for microfluidic applications such as cyclic olefin copolymer (COC). To fabrication through-hole microchips from this alternative material for microfluidics, a fabrication technique that uses a high-temperature, high-pressure resistant mold is described. This aluminum-based epoxy mold, serving as the positive master mold for embossing, is casted over etched arrays of pyramidal pits in a silicon wafer. Methods of surface treatment of the wafer prior to casting and PDMS casting of the epoxy are discussed to preserve the silicon wafer for future use. Changes in the thickness of polyethylene are observed for varying embossing temperatures. The methodology described herein can quickly fabricate 20 disposable, single use chips in less than 30 min with the ability to scale up 4 times by using multiple molds simultaneously. When coupled as a platform supporting porous bead sensors, as in the recently developed Programmable Bio-Nano-Chip, this bead chip system can achieve limits of detection, for the cardiac biomarker C-reactive protein, of 0.3 ng/mL, thereby demonstrating that the approach is compatible with high performance, real-world clinical measurements in the context of point-of-care testing.
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Abstract
Over the past 50 years, a considerable research in medicinal chemistry has been carried out around the natural constituents of Cannabis sativa L. Following the identification of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta9-THC) in 1964, critical chemical modifications, e.g., variation of the side chain at C3 and the opening of the tricyclic scaffold, have led to the characterization of potent and cannabinoid receptor subtype-selective ligands. Those ligands that demonstrate high affinity for the cannabinoid receptors and good biological efficacy are still used as powerful pharmacological tools. This review summarizes past as well as recent developments in the structure-activity relationships of phytocannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Stern
- Drug Design and Discovery Center and Unité de Chimie pharmaceutique et de Radiopharmacie, Ecole de Pharmacie, Faculté de Médecine, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue E. Mounier 73, U.C.L. 73.40, B-1200 Bruxelles
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