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Kong LR, Wei F, He DH, Zhou CQ, Li HC, Wu F, Luo Y, Luo JW, Xie QR, Peng H, Zhang Y. Biological variation in the serum and urine kidney injury markers of a healthy population measured within 24 hours. BMC Nephrol 2022; 23:195. [PMID: 35610615 PMCID: PMC9131627 DOI: 10.1186/s12882-022-02819-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS To explore the biological variation (BV) of kidney injury markers in serum and urine of healthy subjects within 24 hours to assist with interpretation of future studies using these biomarkers in the context of known BV. MATERIALS AND METHODS Serum and urine samples were collected every 4 hours (0, 4, 8, 12, 16 and 20 hours) from 31 healthy subjects within 24 hours and serum creatinine (s-Crea), serum β2-microglobin (s-β2MG), serum cystatin C (s-CYSC), serum neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipoprotein (s-NGAL), urine creatinine (u-Crea), urine β2-microglobin (u-β2MG), urine cystatin C (u-CYSC), urine neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipoprotein (u-NGAL) were measured. Outlier and variance homogeneity analyses were performed, followed by CV-ANOVA analysis on trend-corrected data (if relevant), and analytical (CVA), within-subject (CVI), and between-subject (CVG) biological variation were calculated. RESULTS The concentration of kidney injury markers in male was higher than that in female, except for u-CYSC and u-NGAL. There were no significant difference in serum and urine kidney injury markers concentration at different time points. Serum CVI was lower than urine CVI, serum CVG was higher than CVI, and urine CVG was lower than CVI. The individual index (II) of serum kidney injury markers was less than 0.6, while the II of urinary kidney injury markers was more than 1.0. CONCLUSIONS This study provides new short-term BV data for kidney injury markers in healthy subjects within 24 hours, which are of great significance in explaining other AKI / CKD studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Rui Kong
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Pidu District, No. 342, South Street, Pidu District, Chengdu, Sichuan, 611730, People's Republic of China
| | - Fei Wei
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Pidu District, No. 342, South Street, Pidu District, Chengdu, Sichuan, 611730, People's Republic of China
| | - Da-Hai He
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Pidu District, No. 342, South Street, Pidu District, Chengdu, Sichuan, 611730, People's Republic of China
| | - Chao-Qiong Zhou
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Pidu District, No. 342, South Street, Pidu District, Chengdu, Sichuan, 611730, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong-Chuan Li
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Pidu District, No. 342, South Street, Pidu District, Chengdu, Sichuan, 611730, People's Republic of China
| | - Feng Wu
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Pidu District, No. 342, South Street, Pidu District, Chengdu, Sichuan, 611730, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Luo
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Pidu District, No. 342, South Street, Pidu District, Chengdu, Sichuan, 611730, People's Republic of China
| | - Jian-Wei Luo
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Pidu District, No. 342, South Street, Pidu District, Chengdu, Sichuan, 611730, People's Republic of China
| | - Qian-Rong Xie
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Pidu District, No. 342, South Street, Pidu District, Chengdu, Sichuan, 611730, People's Republic of China
| | - Hai Peng
- Clinical Laboratory of Qinghai Provincial People's Hospital Xining, Xining, Qinghai, 810006, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Pidu District, No. 342, South Street, Pidu District, Chengdu, Sichuan, 611730, People's Republic of China.
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Szymaszkiewicz A, Storr M, Fichna J, Zielinska M. Enkephalinase inhibitors, potential therapeutics for the future treatment of diarrhea predominant functional gastrointestinal disorders. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2019; 31:e13526. [PMID: 30549162 DOI: 10.1111/nmo.13526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2018] [Revised: 10/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The endogenous opioid system (EOS) is considered being a crucial element involved in the pathophysiology of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) as it regulates gastrointestinal (GI) homeostasis through modulation of motility and water and ion secretion/absorption. Along with opioid receptors (ORs), the following components of EOS can be distinguished: 1. endogenous opioid peptides (EOPs), namely enkephalins, endorphins, endomorphins and dynorphins, and 2. peptidases, which regulate the metabolism (synthesis and degradation) of EOPs. Enkephalins, which are δ-opioid receptors agonists, induce significant effects in the GI tract as they act as potent pro-absorptive neurotransmitters. The action of enkephalins and other EOPs is limited, since EOPs are easily and rapidly inactivated by a natural metalloendopeptidase (enkephalinase/neprilysin) and aminopeptidase N. Studies show that the activity of EOPs can be enhanced by inhibition of these enzymes. In this review, we discuss the antidiarrheal and antinociceptive potential of enkephalinase inhibitors. Furthermore, our review is to answer the question whether enkephalinase inhibitors may be helpful in the future treatment of diarrhea predominant functional GI disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agata Szymaszkiewicz
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Martin Storr
- Department of Medicine, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, Munich, Germany.,Center of Endoscopy, Starnberg, Germany
| | - Jakub Fichna
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Marta Zielinska
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
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3
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Kumar S, Nagaraju GP, Song H, von Kalm L, Borst DW. Exposure to exogenous enkephalins disrupts reproductive development in the Eastern lubber grasshopper, Romalea microptera (Insecta: Orthoptera). PLoS One 2012; 7:e51126. [PMID: 23226477 PMCID: PMC3511379 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0051126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2012] [Accepted: 10/31/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Enkephalins play a major role in reproductive physiology in crustaceans; however their role in reproductive development in insects is largely unknown. We investigated the effect of exposure to exogenous leucine-enkephalin (Leu-Enk), methionine-enkephalin (Met-Enk), and the opioid antagonist naloxone on gonad development in the Eastern lubber grasshopper, Romalea microptera. Injection of either Leu-Enk or naloxone alone significantly increased the testicular index and testicular follicular diameter in males, and the ovarian index, oocyte length, and oocyte diameter in females. In contrast, injection of Met-Enk inhibited all measures of reproductive development in both sexes. Surprisingly, co-injection of naloxone with either enkephalin enhanced the effect associated with administration of the enkephalin alone. This study clearly demonstrates the ability of enkephalins to disrupt insect sexual development and also suggests the existence of conserved enkephaline-dependent regulatory mechanisms in insects and crustaceans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandeep Kumar
- Department of Biology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA.
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4
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Eberlin M, Mück T, Michel MC. A comprehensive review of the pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, and clinical effects of the neutral endopeptidase inhibitor racecadotril. Front Pharmacol 2012; 3:93. [PMID: 22661949 PMCID: PMC3362754 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2012.00093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 04/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Racecadotril, via its active metabolite thiorphan, is an inhibitor of the enzyme neutral endopeptidase (NEP, EC 3.4.24.11), thereby increasing exposure to NEP substrates including enkephalins and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP). Upon oral administration racecadotril is rapidly and effectively converted into the active metabolite thiorphan, which does not cross the blood–brain-barrier. Racecadotril has mainly been tested in animal models and patients of three therapeutic areas. As an analgesic the effects of racecadotril across animal models were inconsistent. In cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension or congestive heart failure results from animal studies were promising, probably related to increased exposure to ANP, but clinical results have not shown substantial therapeutic benefit over existing treatment options in cardiovascular disease. In contrast, racecadotril was consistently effective in animal models and patients with various forms of acute diarrhea by inhibiting pathologic (but not basal) secretion from the gut without changing gastro-intestinal transit time or motility. This included studies in both adults and children. In direct comparative studies with loperamide in adults and children, racecadotril was at least as effective but exhibited fewer adverse events in most studies, particularly less rebound constipation. Several guidelines recommend the use of racecadotril as addition to oral rehydration treatment in children with acute diarrhea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Eberlin
- Department of Medical Affairs Germany, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co KG Ingelheim, Germany
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5
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Synergistic effect of decreased opioid activity and sleep deprivation on head-twitch response in mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2010; 96:48-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2010.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2009] [Revised: 03/02/2010] [Accepted: 04/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Hayward MD, Low MJ. Naloxone's suppression of spontaneous and food-conditioned locomotor activity is diminished in mice lacking either the dopamine D(2) receptor or enkephalin. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 140:91-8. [PMID: 16125819 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbrainres.2005.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2005] [Revised: 07/19/2005] [Accepted: 07/24/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Mice lacking the D2 dopamine receptor (D2(-/-)) and congenic to the C57BL/6J background were tested for opioid-mediated locomotor activity to examine the involvement of the D2 dopamine receptor in opioid pharmacology. Morphine-stimulated locomotor activity did not significantly differ between the two genotypes. The opioid antagonist naloxone dose-dependently decreased spontaneous motor activity in wild-type mice but was without significant effect in D2(-/-) mice. The magnitude of food-conditioned increases in locomotor activity in wild-type mice and D2(-/-) mice was similar but naloxone did not decrease conditioned motor activity in D2(-/-) mice. Spontaneous locomotor activity of mice lacking the endogenous opioids beta-endorphin and/or enkephalin was also tested and we found that naloxone did not reduce activity in mice specifically lacking enkephalin. We suggest that the D2 dopamine receptor is necessary for modulation of spontaneous locomotor activity stimulated by the endogenous opioid enkephalin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Hayward
- Vollum Institute L-474, Oregon Health and Science University, 3181 S.W. Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR 97239, USA.
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Compan V, Scearce-Levie K, Crosson C, Daszuta A, Hen R. Enkephalin contributes to the locomotor stimulating effects of 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine. Eur J Neurosci 2003; 18:383-90. [PMID: 12887420 DOI: 10.1046/j.1460-9568.2003.02767.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDMA, 'Ecstasy') is a potent inhibitor of serotonin uptake, which induces both an increase in locomotion and a decrease in exploratory activity in rodents. Serotonin 5-HT1B receptors, located on the terminals of striatal efferent neurons, have been suggested to mediate these motor effects of MDMA. Striatal neurons projecting to the globus pallidus contain met-enkephalin, whilst those projecting to the substantia nigra contain substance P. We therefore analysed the levels of both peptides using radioimmunocytochemistry after MDMA administration (10 mg/kg, 3 h) in wild-type and 5-HT1B receptor knockout mice. Our results demonstrate that MDMA induces a decrease in pallidal met-enkephalin immunolabelling in wild-type, but not in 5-HT1B receptor knockout mice. Similar results were obtained following treatment with the 5-HT1A/1B agonist RU24969 (5 mg/kg, 3 h), suggesting that activation of 5-HT1B receptors leads to a reduction in met-enkephalin levels in the globus pallidus. In contrast, MDMA had no effect on the nigral substance P levels. We have previously shown that both MDMA and RU24969 fail to stimulate locomotor activity in 5-HT1B receptor knockout mice. Our present data indicate that the opioid antagonist naloxone suppressed the locomotor effects of MDMA. This study is the first to demonstrate that Enk contributes to MDMA-induced increases in locomotor activity. Such an effect may be related to the 5-HT control of pallidal met-enkephalin levels via the 5-HT1B receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Compan
- Columbia University, Center for Neurobiology and Behaviour, N.Y.S.P.I. Kolb Research Annex, Room 732, 1051 Riverside Drive, Unit 87, New York, NY 10032-2695, USA.
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8
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Saria A, Hauser KF, Traurig HH, Turbek CS, Hersh L, Gerard C. Opioid-related changes in nociceptive threshold and in tissue levels of enkephalins after target disruption of the gene for neutral endopeptidase (EC 3.4.24.11) in mice. Neurosci Lett 1997; 234:27-30. [PMID: 9347938 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(97)00660-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Neutral endopeptidase EC 3.4.24.11 (NEP) is localized in peptidergic neurons and various colocalized peptides or other humoral mediators may serve as substrates. Target disruption of the NEP gene was reported to enhance the lethal response to endotoxin shock in mice. We examined thermonociceptive thresholds and enkephalin (ENK) tissue levels in transgenic NEP (-/-) and control wild type NEP (+/+) mice. Hot plate (52 degrees C) latency was 13.1 +/- 1.4 s in NEP (+/+) mice (n = 16) while latency increased significantly (P = 0.031) to 17.7 +/- 1.6 s in NEP (-/-) mice. Naloxone (10 mg/kg) had no effect on hot plate latency in NEP (+/+) mice (12.5 s, n = 8), but significantly decreased the latency in NEP (-/-) mice compared to untreated NEP (-/-) deficient mice (10.5 s, n = 8). Morphine (3 or 10 mg/kg) analgesic response was similar in knockout mice and wild type mice. Methionine-ENK (MET-ENK) and leucine-ENK (LEU-ENK) levels were determined in extracts from cortex, brain stem, hypothalamus, striatum, spinal cord, trigeminal ganglion and heart in treated and untreated mice. ENK-levels varied in a regionally-dependent manner and were significantly decreased in hypothalamus and spinal cord. We conclude that deletion of the NEP gene results in an opioid-related increase in thermonociceptive threshold. Regional differences in opioid metabolism indicate that NEP evokes tissue-specific patterns of ENK-regulation. NEP selectively controls opioid biosynthesis in hypothalamus and spinal cord presumably by feedback regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Saria
- Neurochemical Laboratory, Clinic of Psychiatry, Innsbruck, Austria.
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9
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Schomburg ED. Restrictions on the interpretation of spinal reflex modulation in pain and analgesia research. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s1082-3174(97)70008-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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10
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Florin S, Suaudeau C, Meunier JC, Costentin J. Nociceptin stimulates locomotion and exploratory behaviour in mice. Eur J Pharmacol 1996; 317:9-13. [PMID: 8982713 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-2999(96)00707-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The recently characterized heptadecapeptide nociceptin, the endogenous agonist of the orphan opioid receptor-like 1 (ORL1 receptor), has been tested for its effects on locomotion and exploratory behaviour in mice. I.c.v. administration of as little as 10 ng of nociceptin/animal stimulated locomotor activity. This effect was dose-dependent, increasing in intensity up to 100 ng and in duration for doses in the range of 1000-10000 ng. The stimulation of horizontal locomotion elicited by 100 ng nociceptin was accompanied by a stimulation of the vertical component of locomotion. These effects were not reversed by high doses (1.5 and 4.5 mg/kg s.c.) of the opioid receptor antagonist naloxone. Increasing doses of the dopamine D2 receptor antagonist haloperidol (0.1-0.5 mg/kg i.p.) as well as of the dopamine D1 receptor antagonist SCH 23390 [R(+)-7-chloro-8-hydroxy-3-methyl-1-phenyl-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1 H-3-benzazepine hydrochloride] (0.0075-0.03 mg/kg s.c.) reversed this effect, suggesting that nociceptin exerts its motor-stimulant actions by increasing central dopaminergic transmission. Nociceptin was also found to increase the number of head dips in the hole-board test, indicating that the peptide stimulates exploratory behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Florin
- Unité de Neuropsychopharmacologie Expérimentale (CNRS URA 1969), Institut Fédératif de Recherche Multidisciplinaire sur les Peptides, Faculté de Médecine et Pharmacie de Rouen, Saint Etienne du Rouvray, France
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11
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Hitzemann R, Qian Y, Kanes S, Dains K, Hitzemann B. Genetics and the organization of the basal ganglia. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 1995; 38:43-94. [PMID: 8537205 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(08)60524-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- R Hitzemann
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Pharmacology and Neurobiology and Behavior, SUNY at Stony Brook 11794, USA
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12
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Noble F, Fournié-Zaluski MC, Roques BP. Unlike morphine the endogenous enkephalins protected by RB101 are unable to establish a conditioned place preference in mice. Eur J Pharmacol 1993; 230:139-49. [PMID: 8422896 DOI: 10.1016/0014-2999(93)90796-k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The mixed inhibitor prodrug, RB101, was used to study the motivational properties of the endogenous opioid peptides, the enkephalins. In the conditioned place preference test, which is commonly used to investigate the reinforcing properties of drugs, mice alternately treated with morphine (3 mg/kg i.p.) on the initially non-preferred compartment and with saline on the preferred one, for four place pairings, spent more time in the drug-associated compartment. This shift in place preference after the conditioning procedure was not found after treatment with RB101 (80 mg/kg i.p.). Administration of naloxone (1 mg/kg s.c.) after the conditioning phase increased the preference for the drug-associated compartment of mice treated with 6 mg/kg (i.p.) of morphine. This illustrates the negative motivational properties of morphine withdrawal or the establishment of psychic dependence on the drug. In contrast, no modification of preference was observed after injection of naloxone in animals treated with a high dose of RB101 (160 mg/kg i.p.). The failure to establish conditioned place preference by inhibiting endogenous enkephalin metabolism, and the lack of development of psychic dependence after RB101 administration demonstrate for the first time the interest of mixed inhibitors of enkephalin-degrading enzymes as potent new non-addictive analgesics.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Noble
- Unité de Pharmacochimie Moléculaire et Structurale, U266 INSERM-URA D1500 CNRS, Université René Descartes, Paris, France
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Kayser V, Guilbaud G. Physiological relevance and time course of a tonic endogenous opioid modulation of nociceptive messages, based on the effects of naloxone in a rat model of localized hyperalgesic inflammation. Brain Res 1991; 567:197-203. [PMID: 1817726 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(91)90796-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
In a rat model of localized hyperalgesic inflammation induced by intraplantar injection of carrageenin, the effect of a relatively high dose of naloxone (1 mg/kg i.v.) was investigated using the measure of the vocalization threshold as a nociceptive test, on both the inflamed and non-inflamed paws. The effects of the drug were determined at two different periods after the intraplantar injection of carrageenin, in the same group of rats. We showed that 4 h after carrageenin (a few hours after the onset of the inflammatory process), naloxone induced a significant further decrease in the vocalization threshold induced by pressure on either paw, suggesting that naloxone had reduced a tonically active inhibitory system involving endogenous opioid peptides. Twenty-four hours after carrageenin, a consistent hyperalgesic effect of naloxone was observable only in rats which had recovered from their carrageenin-induced hyperalgesia. A significant negative correlation between the behavioral effect of naloxone and the degree of hyperalgesia determined for each animal was observed. This suggests that the tonic inhibition exerted by the endogenous opioids was particularly effective in rats which recovered from their initial hyperalgesia. By contrast, these opioid controls could have been weaker in those rats which remained hyperalgesic.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Kayser
- Recherches de Physiopharmacologie du Système Nerveux, I.N.S.E.R.M. Paris, France
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Abstract
The effect of combined treatment with 125 mg/kg of D-phenylalanine plus 125 mg/kg of D-leucine (IP) on magnitude and duration of analgesia caused by 3 min swim at 20 degrees C was studied in mouse lines selectively bred for 20 generations toward high and low level of stress-induced analgesia. The D-amino acids administered 30 min prior to swimming increased postswim tail-flick latencies and prolonged antinociception more in the high analgesia line (HA) than in concomitantly bred unselected controls, but were not effective in the low analgesia line (LA). The potentiation of swim analgesia by D-amino acids was prevented by simultaneous administration of 1 mg/kg of naloxone hydrochloride which, given alone, antagonized the analgesia more in the HA line than in controls, but not in the LA line. The results are interpreted in terms of genetic differentiation of opioidergic transmission in the selectively bred mouse lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Panocka
- Department of Behavioral Physiology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Mroków
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Abstract
This paper is the twelfth installment of our annual review of the research published during 1989 involving the behavioral, nonanalgesic, effects of the endogenous opiate peptides. The specific topics this year include stress; tolerance and dependence; eating; drinking; gastrointestinal and renal functions; mental illness; learning, memory, and reward; cardiovascular responses; respiration and thermoregulation; seizures and other neurological disorders; electrical-related activity; locomotor activity; sex, development, pregnancy, and aging; immunological responses; and other behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- G A Olson
- Department of Psychology, University of New Orleans, LA 70148
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