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Tragantzopoulou P, Giannouli V. Understanding the Neuropsychological Implications of Klinefelter Syndrome in Pediatric Populations: Current Perspectives. Pediatr Rep 2024; 16:420-431. [PMID: 38921701 PMCID: PMC11206885 DOI: 10.3390/pediatric16020036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Klinefelter syndrome (KS), also known as 47,XXY, is a genetic disorder characterized by the presence of an extra X chromosome. Despite the prevalence of verbal learning disabilities, memory impairments, and executive function deficits in individuals with KS, comprehensive research on the neuropsychological profiles of affected children and adolescents remains limited. Additionally, KS has been associated with comorbid conditions such as depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). However, systematic investigations into the neuropsychological manifestations of KS in pediatric populations are scarce. Therefore, the primary objectives of this review are to provide an overview of key studies examining the neuropsychological profiles of children and adolescents with KS and to delineate the limitations and implications of existing research findings. By synthesizing available literature, this review aims to bridge the gap in understanding the cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children and adolescents with KS, shedding light on potential avenues for future research and clinical interventions. Ultimately, this review serves as a valuable resource for clinicians, researchers, policymakers, parents, and educators involved in the assessment and management of the neuropsychological aspects of Klinefelter syndrome in pediatric populations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vaitsa Giannouli
- School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece;
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2
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van Elst PC, Otter M, Wijnen F, Junge C. Evaluating the Scope of Language Impairments in a Patient with Triple X Syndrome: A Brief Report. Dev Neurorehabil 2020; 23:402-406. [PMID: 32419557 DOI: 10.1080/17518423.2020.1764652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The phenotype of triple X syndrome comprises a variety of physical, psychiatric, and cognitive features. Recent evidence suggests that patients are prone to severe language impairments. However, it remains unclear whether verbal impairments are pervasive at all levels of language, or whether one domain is relatively more spared than others. Here we document the language profile of one patient with triple X, using standardized language tests and reports. Results concur in showing that impairments are noticeable both in expressive and receptive language skills, and in vocabulary as well as in structural components of language. Although receptive ability in some tests appears relatively spared, even here A's performance is clearly below average. This single case study further underscores that language and communication at all levels can be severely compromised in patients with triple X. Practitioners should be aware of the limited language abilities that possibly exist in patients with triple X.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maarten Otter
- Forensic Psychiatric Department, STEVIG , Oostrum, The Netherlands.,Department of Community Mental Health for People with Learning Disabilities, Trajectum, Zutphen, The Netherlands
| | - Frank Wijnen
- Utrecht Institute of Linguistics OTS, Utrecht University , Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Caroline Junge
- Departments of Experimental and Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University , Utrecht, The Netherlands
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3
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McCabe KL, Popa AM, Durdle C, Amato M, Cabaral MH, Cruz J, Wong LM, Harvey D, Tartaglia N, Simon TJ. Quantifying the resolution of spatial and temporal representation in children with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. J Neurodev Disord 2019; 11:40. [PMID: 31861974 PMCID: PMC6925465 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-019-9301-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Our ability to generate mental representation of magnitude from sensory information affects how we perceive and experience the world. Reduced resolution of the mental representations formed from sensory inputs may generate impairment in the proximal and distal information processes that utilize these representations. Impairment of spatial and temporal information processing likely underpins the non-verbal cognitive impairments observed in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS). The present study builds on prior research by seeking to quantify the resolution of spatial and temporal representation in children with 22q11DS, sex chromosome aneuploidy (SCA), and a typically developing (TD) control group. PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS Children (22q11DS = 70, SCA = 49, TD = 46) responded to visual or auditory stimuli with varying difference ratios. The participant's task was to identify which of two sequentially presented stimuli was of larger magnitude in terms of, size, duration, or auditory frequency. Detection threshold was calculated as the minimum difference ratio between the "standard" and the "target" stimuli required to achieve 75% accuracy in detecting that the two stimuli were different. RESULTS Children with 22q11DS required larger magnitude difference between spatial stimuli for accurate identification compared with both the SCA and TD groups (% difference from standard: 22q11DS = 14; SCA = 8; TD: 7; F = 8.42, p < 0.001). Temporal detection threshold was also higher for the 22q11DS group to both visual (% difference from standard: 22q11DS = 14; SCA = 8; TD = 7; F = 8.33, p < 0.001) and auditory (% difference from standard: 22q11DS = 23; SCA = 12; TD: 8; F = 8.99, p < 0.001) stimuli compared with both the SCA and TD groups, while the SCA and TD groups displayed equivalent performance on these measures (p's > 0.05). Pitch detection threshold did not differ among the groups (p's > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS The observation of higher detection thresholds to spatial and temporal stimuli indicates further evidence for reduced resolution in both spatial and temporal magnitude representation in 22q11DS, that does not extend to frequency magnitude representation (pitch detection), and which is not explained by generalized cognitive impairment alone. These findings generate further support for the hypothesis that spatiotemporal hypergranularity of mental representations contributes to the non-verbal cognitive impairment seen in 22q11DS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn L McCabe
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, USA.
- MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, CA, USA.
| | - Abbie M Popa
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Courtney Durdle
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Michele Amato
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Margarita H Cabaral
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Joshua Cruz
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Ling M Wong
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
- MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Danielle Harvey
- Division of Biostatistics, Department of Public Health Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Nicole Tartaglia
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Tony J Simon
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
- MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
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Giagulli VA, Campone B, Castellana M, Salzano C, Fisher AD, de Angelis C, Pivonello R, Colao A, Pasquali D, Maggi M, Triggiani V, On Behalf Of The Klinefelter ItaliaN Group King. Neuropsychiatric Aspects in Men with Klinefelter Syndrome. Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets 2019; 19:109-115. [PMID: 29972105 PMCID: PMC7360906 DOI: 10.2174/1871530318666180703160250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Revised: 05/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Klinefelter Syndrome (KS) is the most common sex chromosome aneuploidy (47, XXY) and cause of male hypergonadotropic hypogonadism. It is characterized by an extreme clinical heterogeneity in presentation, including infertility, hypogonadism, language delay, metabolic comorbidities, and neurocognitive and psychiatric disorders. Since testosterone is known to have organizational, neurotrophic and neuroprotective effects on brain, the condition of primary hypogonadism could play a role. Moreover, given that KS subjects have an additional X, genes on the extra-chromosome could also exert a significant impact. The aim of this narrative review is to analyze the available literature on the relationship between KS and neuropsychiatric disorders. METHODS To extend to the best of published literature on the topic, appropriate keywords and MeSH terms were identified and searched in Pubmed. Finally, references of original articles and reviews were examined. RESULTS Both morphological and functional studies focusing on the brain showed that there were important differences in brain structure of KS subjects. Different psychiatric disorders such as Schizophrenia, autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, depression and anxiety were frequently reported in KS patients according to a broad spectrum of phenotypes. T supplementation (TRT) was not able to improve the psychotic disorders in KS men with or without overt hypogonadism. CONCLUSION Although the risk of psychosis, depression and autism is increased in subjects with KS, no definitive evidence has been found in studies aiming at identifying the relationship between aneuploidy, T deficit and the risk of psychiatric and cognitive disorders in subjects affected by KS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vito Angelo Giagulli
- Section of Internal Medicine, Geriatrics, Endocrinology and Rare Diseases, Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, University of Bari, School of Medicine, Policlinico, Bari, Italy
| | - Beatrice Campone
- Psychiatric Unit Department of Health Science, University of Florence, Italy
| | | | - Ciro Salzano
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Chirurgia, Sezione di Endocrinologia, Universita "Federico II" di Napoli, Naples, Italy
| | - Alessandra Daphne Fisher
- Sexual Medicine and Andrology Unit, Department of Experimental Clinical and Biomedical Sciences "Mario Serio", University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Cristina de Angelis
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Chirurgia, Sezione di Endocrinologia, Universita "Federico II" di Napoli, Naples, Italy
| | - Rosario Pivonello
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Chirurgia, Sezione di Endocrinologia, Universita "Federico II" di Napoli, Naples, Italy
| | - Annamaria Colao
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Chirurgia, Sezione di Endocrinologia, Universita "Federico II" di Napoli, Naples, Italy
| | - Daniela Pasquali
- Department of Medical, Surgical, Neurological, Metabolic Sciences and Aging, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", 80138 Naples, Italy
| | - Mario Maggi
- Sexual Medicine and Andrology Unit, Department of Experimental Clinical and Biomedical Sciences "Mario Serio", University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Triggiani
- Section of Internal Medicine, Geriatrics, Endocrinology and Rare Diseases, Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, University of Bari, School of Medicine, Policlinico, Bari, Italy
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St John M, Ponchard C, van Reyk O, Mei C, Pigdon L, Amor DJ, Morgan AT. Speech and language in children with Klinefelter syndrome. JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION DISORDERS 2019; 78:84-96. [PMID: 30822601 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcomdis.2019.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Revised: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Speech and language deficits are frequent in males with Klinefelter syndrome (KS), yet the research base is slim and specific strengths and deficits in communication have not been well characterised. Nor have studies examined communication abilities across a wide age-range from infancy to adolescence. OBJECTIVE To characterise communication in children and adolescents with KS. METHOD Twenty-six males, aged 1;1-17;4 years, took part in the study. Oromotor, speech, language, literacy and pragmatic abilities were assessed. RESULTS Communication impairment was seen in 92% of cases (24/26), with salient findings being impairments in social-pragmatic language (15/18; 83%), language-memory (12/15; 80%) and literacy (13/17; 76%). Mild to severe receptive and expressive language deficits were common (16/23; 70%), although performance was varied across linguistic domains of semantics, syntax, and morphology. Oromotor impairment (21/21; 100%) and speech impairments were evident from preschool through to adolescence. Whilst speech was highly intelligible (22/26; 85%), articulation errors (12/26; 46%), phonological delay (12/26; 46%), phonological disorder (5/26; 19%) and dysarthria (2/23 8.7%) were observed. Other atypical, yet mild, speech features were noted such as hyponasality (16/23; 70%). CONCLUSIONS Language, literacy and social-pragmatic deficits are common in KS. Data suggested a trend for more notable deficits with age and increasing academic and social demands. We added novel data on the nature of speech production deficits, including persistent phonological errors in a number of cases. Earlier detection and intervention of phonological errors may reduce the risk for later language and literacy challenges and optimise academic, and ultimately social and behavioural difficulties later in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miya St John
- University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia; Murdoch Children's Research Institute, 50 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Charlotte Ponchard
- University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia; Murdoch Children's Research Institute, 50 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Olivia van Reyk
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, 50 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Cristina Mei
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, 50 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Lauren Pigdon
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, 50 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - David J Amor
- University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia; Murdoch Children's Research Institute, 50 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia; Royal Children's Hospital, 50 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia; Victorian Clinical Genetics Service, 50 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Angela T Morgan
- University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia; Murdoch Children's Research Institute, 50 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia; Royal Children's Hospital, 50 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.
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Gravholt CH, Chang S, Wallentin M, Fedder J, Moore P, Skakkebæk A. Klinefelter Syndrome: Integrating Genetics, Neuropsychology, and Endocrinology. Endocr Rev 2018; 39:389-423. [PMID: 29438472 DOI: 10.1210/er.2017-00212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Accepted: 02/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Although first identified over 70 years ago, Klinefelter syndrome (KS) continues to pose substantial diagnostic challenges, as many patients are still misdiagnosed, or remain undiagnosed. In fact, as few as 25% of patients with KS are accurately diagnosed and most of these diagnoses are not made until adulthood. Classic characteristics of KS include small testes, infertility, hypergonadothropic hypogonadism, and cognitive impairment. However, the pathophysiology behind KS is not well understood, although genetic effects are also thought to play a role. For example, recent developments in genetics and genomics point to a fundamental change in our understanding of KS, with global epigenetic and RNA expression changes playing a central role for the phenotype. KS is also associated with more general health markers, including higher morbidity and mortality rates and lower socioeconomic status (which likely affect both morbidity and mortality). In addition, hypogonadism is associated with greater risk of metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, breast cancer, and extragonadal germ cell tumors. Medical treatment typically focuses on testosterone replacement therapy (TRT), although the effects of this therapy have not been studied rigorously, and future studies need to evaluate the effects of TRT on metabolic risk and neurocognitive outcomes. This review presents a comprehensive interdisciplinary examination of recent developments in genetic, endocrine, and neurocognitive science, including the study of animal models. It provides a number of recommendations for improving the effectiveness of research and clinical practice, including neonatal KS screening programs, and a multidisciplinary approach to KS treatment from childhood until senescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claus H Gravholt
- Department of Endocrinology and Internal Medicine (MEA), Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus C, Denmark.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Simon Chang
- Department of Endocrinology and Internal Medicine (MEA), Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus C, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Esbjerg Sygehus, Esbjerg, Denmark
| | - Mikkel Wallentin
- Department of Linguistics, Cognitive Science, and Semiotics, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark.,Center of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Jens Fedder
- Centre of Andrology and Fertility Clinic, Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Odense University Hospital, Odense C, Denmark
| | - Philip Moore
- Department of Psychology, The George Washington University, Washington DC
| | - Anne Skakkebæk
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus N, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Genetics, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus N, Denmark
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7
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Davis S, Howell S, Wilson R, Tanda T, Ross J, Zeitler P, Tartaglia N. Advances in the Interdisciplinary Care of Children with Klinefelter Syndrome. Adv Pediatr 2016; 63:15-46. [PMID: 27426894 PMCID: PMC5340500 DOI: 10.1016/j.yapd.2016.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shanlee Davis
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 13123 East 16th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80045, USA; Department of Endocrinology, Children's Hospital Colorado, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 13123 East 16th Avenue B265, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Susan Howell
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 13123 East 16th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80045, USA; Developmental Pediatrics, Children's Hospital Colorado, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 13123 East 16th Avenue B140, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Rebecca Wilson
- Developmental Pediatrics, Children's Hospital Colorado, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 13123 East 16th Avenue B140, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Tanea Tanda
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 13123 East 16th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80045, USA; Developmental Pediatrics, Children's Hospital Colorado, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 13123 East 16th Avenue B140, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Judy Ross
- Department of Pediatrics, Thomas Jefferson University School of Medicine, 833 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA; Pediatric Endocrinology, Nemours A.I. DuPont Hospital for Children, 1600 Rockland Road, Wilmington, DE 19803, USA
| | - Philip Zeitler
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 13123 East 16th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80045, USA; Department of Endocrinology, Children's Hospital Colorado, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 13123 East 16th Avenue B265, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Nicole Tartaglia
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 13123 East 16th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80045, USA; Developmental Pediatrics, Children's Hospital Colorado, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 13123 East 16th Avenue B140, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
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8
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Davis SM, Rogol AD, Ross JL. Testis Development and Fertility Potential in Boys with Klinefelter Syndrome. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2015; 44:843-65. [PMID: 26568497 PMCID: PMC4648691 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecl.2015.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Klinefelter syndrome (KS) is the leading genetic cause of primary hypogonadism and infertility in men. The clinical phenotype has expanded beyond the original description of infertility, small testes, and gynecomastia. Animal models, epidemiologic studies, and clinical research of male subjects with KS throughout the lifespan have allowed the better characterization of the variable phenotype of this condition. This review provides an overview on what is known of the epidemiology, clinical features, and pathophysiology of KS, followed by a more focused discussion of testicular development and the clinical management of hypogonadism and fertility in boys and men with KS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanlee M. Davis
- University of Colorado/Children’s Hospital Colorado, 13123 East 16 Ave B264, Aurora, CO 80045, 720-777-6073
| | - Alan D. Rogol
- University of Virginia, 685 Explorers Road, Charlottesville, VA 22911, 434-971-6687, Consultant to: SOV Therapeutics, Trimel Pharmaceuticals, NovoNordisk, Versartis, AbbVie
| | - Judith L. Ross
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology A.I. DuPont Hospital for Children/ Thomas Jefferson University, Department of Pediatrics, 833 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19107
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Wade BSC, Joshi SH, Reuter M, Blumenthal JD, Toga AW, Thompson PM, Giedd JN. Effects of sex chromosome dosage on corpus callosum morphology in supernumerary sex chromosome aneuploidies. Biol Sex Differ 2014; 5:16. [PMID: 25780557 PMCID: PMC4360142 DOI: 10.1186/s13293-014-0016-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2014] [Accepted: 09/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Supernumerary sex chromosome aneuploidies (sSCA) are characterized by the presence of one or more additional sex chromosomes in an individual’s karyotype; they affect around 1 in 400 individuals. Although there is high variability, each sSCA subtype has a characteristic set of cognitive and physical phenotypes. Here, we investigated the differences in the morphometry of the human corpus callosum (CC) between sex-matched controls 46,XY (N =99), 46,XX (N =93), and six unique sSCA karyotypes: 47,XYY (N =29), 47,XXY (N =58), 48,XXYY (N =20), 47,XXX (N =30), 48,XXXY (N =5), and 49,XXXXY (N =6). Methods We investigated CC morphometry using local and global area, local curvature of the CC boundary, and between-landmark distance analysis (BLDA). We hypothesized that CC morphometry would vary differentially along a proposed spectrum of Y:X chromosome ratio with supernumerary Y karyotypes having the largest CC areas and supernumerary X karyotypes having significantly smaller CC areas. To investigate this, we defined an sSCA spectrum based on a descending Y:X karyotype ratio: 47,XYY, 46,XY, 48,XXYY, 47,XXY, 48,XXXY, 49,XXXXY, 46,XX, 47,XXX. We similarly explored the effects of both X and Y chromosome numbers within sex. Results of shape-based metrics were analyzed using permutation tests consisting of 5,000 iterations. Results Several subregional areas, local curvature, and BLDs differed between groups. Moderate associations were found between area and curvature in relation to the spectrum and X and Y chromosome counts. BLD was strongly associated with X chromosome count in both male and female groups. Conclusions Our results suggest that X- and Y-linked genes have differential effects on CC morphometry. To our knowledge, this is the first study to compare CC morphometry across these extremely rare groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin S C Wade
- Imaging Genetics Center, Institute for Neuro Imaging and Informatics, USC, 4676 Admiralty Way, Marina del Rey, Los Angeles 90292, CA, USA
| | - Shantanu H Joshi
- Department of Neurology, Ahmanson-Lovelace Brain Mapping Center, UCLA, Los Angeles 90095, CA, USA
| | - Martin Reuter
- Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown 02129, MA, USA
| | - Jonathan D Blumenthal
- Child Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda 20892-1600, MD, USA
| | - Arthur W Toga
- Institute for Neuro Imaging and Informatics, Keck School of Medicine, USC, Los Angeles 90032, CA, USA
| | - Paul M Thompson
- Imaging Genetics Center, Institute for Neuro Imaging and Informatics, USC, 4676 Admiralty Way, Marina del Rey, Los Angeles 90292, CA, USA
| | - Jay N Giedd
- Child Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda 20892-1600, MD, USA
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10
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Priddle TH, Crow TJ. The protocadherin 11X/Y (PCDH11X/Y) gene pair as determinant of cerebral asymmetry in modern Homo sapiens. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2013; 1288:36-47. [PMID: 23600975 PMCID: PMC3752934 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.12042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Annett's right-shift theory proposes that human cerebral dominance (the functional and anatomical asymmetry or torque along the antero-posterior axis) and handedness are determined by a single “right-shift” gene. Familial transmission of handedness and specific deviations of cerebral dominance in sex chromosome aneuploidies implicate a locus within an X–Y homologous region of the sex chromosomes. The Xq21.3/Yp11.2 human-specific region of homology includes the protocadherin 11X/Y (PCDH11X/Y) gene pair, which encode cell adhesion molecules subject to accelerated evolution following the separation of the human and chimpanzee lineages six million years ago. PCDH11X and PCDH11Y, differentially regulated by retinoic acid, are highly expressed in the ventricular zone, subplate, and cortical plate of the developing cerebral cortex. Both proteins interact with β-catenin, a protein that plays a role in determining axis formation and regulating cortical size. In this way, the PCDH11X/Y gene pair determines cerebral asymmetry by initiating the right shift in Homo sapiens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas H Priddle
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.
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11
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Lee NR, Wallace GL, Adeyemi EI, Lopez KC, Blumenthal JD, Clasen LS, Giedd JN. Dosage effects of X and Y chromosomes on language and social functioning in children with supernumerary sex chromosome aneuploidies: implications for idiopathic language impairment and autism spectrum disorders. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2012; 53:1072-81. [PMID: 22827287 PMCID: PMC3480208 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02573.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Supernumerary sex chromosome aneuploidies (X/Y-aneuploidies), the presence of extra X and/or Y chromosomes, are associated with heightened rates of language impairments and social difficulties. However, no single study has examined different language domains and social functioning in the same sample of children with tri-, tetra-, and pentasomy X/Y-aneuploidy. The current research sought to fill this gap in the literature and to examine dosage effects of X and Y chromosomes on language and social functioning. METHODS Participants included 110 youth with X/Y-aneuploidies (32 female) and 52 with typical development (25 female) matched on age (mean ∼12 years; range 4-22) and maternal education. Participants completed the Wechsler intelligence scales, and parents completed the children's communication checklist-2 and the social responsiveness scale to assess language skills and autistic traits, respectively. RESULTS Both supernumerary X and Y chromosomes were related to depressed structural and pragmatic language skills and increased autistic traits. The addition of a Y chromosome had a disproportionately greater impact on pragmatic language; the addition of one or more X chromosomes had a disproportionately greater impact on structural language. CONCLUSIONS Given that we link extra X chromosomes with structural language impairments and an extra Y chromosome with pragmatic language impairments, X/Y-aneuploidies may provide clues to genetic mechanisms contributing to idiopathic language impairment and autism spectrum disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Raitano Lee
- Child Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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12
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Advances in research on the neurological and neuropsychiatric phenotype of Klinefelter syndrome. Curr Opin Neurol 2012; 25:138-43. [PMID: 22395004 DOI: 10.1097/wco.0b013e32835181a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Klinefelter syndrome, 47,XXY is the most common chromosomal aberration among men. It represents a naturally occurring human model for studies of both X-chromosome gene expression and potential androgen effects on brain development and function. The aim of this review is to combine available brain imaging and behavioral data to provide an overview of what we have learned about the neural underpinnings of cognitive, emotional and behavioral dysunctions in Klinefelter syndrome. RECENT FINDINGS The behavioral phenotype of 47,XXY is characterized by language, executive and psychomotor dysfunction, as well as socioemotional impairment. The prevalence of schizophrenia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorders and affective regulation problems is increased. Neuroimaging studies of children and adults with Klinefelter syndrome syndrome show characteristic structural changes from typical individuals. There are increases in the grey matter volume of the sensorimotor and parietooccipital regions, as well as significant reductions in amygdala, hippocampal, insular, temporal and inferior-frontal grey matter volumes. Widespread white matter abnormalities have been revealed, with reductions in some areas (including anterior cingulate, bilaterally) but increases in others (such as left parietal lobe). Mechanisms underlying these developmental anomalies could include imbalance in gene dosage relative to typical men or women, as well as the potential consequence of endocrinological deficits. SUMMARY Studies of Klinefelter syndrome could generate important information about the impact of anomalies in sex chromosome gene regulation on the development of cerebral grey and white matter and, ultimately, on human behavior.
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Cerebral Asymmetry: A Quantitative, Multifactorial, and Plastic Brain Phenotype. Twin Res Hum Genet 2012; 15:401-13. [DOI: 10.1017/thg.2012.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The longitudinal fissure separates the human brain into two hemispheres that remain connected through the corpus callosum. The left and the right halves of the brain resemble each other, and almost every structure present in one side has an equivalent structure in the other. Despite this exceptional correspondence, the two hemispheres also display important anatomical differences and there is marked lateralization of certain cognitive and motor functions such as language and handedness. However, the mechanisms that underlie the establishment of these hemispheric specializations, as well as their physiological and behavioral implications, remain largely unknown. Thanks to recent advances in neuroimaging, a series of studies documenting variation in symmetry and asymmetry as a function of age, gender, brain region, and pathological state, have been published in the past decade. Here, we review evidence of normal and atypical cerebral asymmetry, and the factors that influence it at the macrostructural level. Given the prominent role that cerebral asymmetry plays in the organization of the brain, and its possible implication in neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions, further research in this area is anticipated.
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Ganou M, Grouios G, Koidou I, Alevriadou A. The Concept of Anomalous Cerebral Lateralization in Klinefelter Syndrome. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 17:144-52. [DOI: 10.1080/09084281003715683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Boada R, Janusz J, Hutaff-Lee C, Tartaglia N. The cognitive phenotype in Klinefelter syndrome: a review of the literature including genetic and hormonal factors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 15:284-94. [PMID: 20014369 DOI: 10.1002/ddrr.83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Klinefelter syndrome (KS) or 47,XXY occurs in approximately 1 in 650 males. Individuals with KS often present with physical characteristics including tall stature, hypogonadism, and fertility problems. In addition to medical findings, the presence of the extra X chromosome can lead to characteristic cognitive and language deficits of varying severity. While a small, but significant downward shift in mean overall IQ has been reported, the general cognitive abilities of patients with KS are not typically in the intellectual disability range. Most studies support that males with KS have an increased risk of language disorders and reading disabilities. Results of other studies investigating the relationship between verbal and nonverbal/spatial cognitive abilities have been mixed, with differing results based on the age and ascertainment method of the cohort studied. Executive function deficits have been identified in children and adults with KS, however, the research in this area is limited and further investigation of the neuropsychological profile is needed. In this article, we review the strengths and weaknesses of previous cognitive and neuropsychological studies in males with KS in childhood and adulthood, provide historical perspective of these studies, and review what is known about how hormonal and genetic factors influence cognitive features in 47,XXY/KS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Boada
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, The Children's Hospital, Aurora, Colorado, USA
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Lenroot RK, Lee NR, Giedd JN. Effects of sex chromosome aneuploidies on brain development: evidence from neuroimaging studies. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 15:318-27. [PMID: 20014372 DOI: 10.1002/ddrr.86] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Variation in the number of sex chromosomes is a relatively common genetic condition, affecting as many as 1/400 individuals. The sex chromosome aneuploidies (SCAs) are associated with characteristic behavioral and cognitive phenotypes, although the degree to which specific individuals are affected can fall within a wide range. Understanding the effects of different dosages of sex chromosome genes on brain development may help to understand the basis for functional differences in affected individuals. It may also be informative regarding how sex chromosomes contribute to typical sexual differentiation. Studies of 47,XXY males make up the bulk of the current literature of neuroimaging studies in individuals with supernumerary sex chromosomes, with a few small studies or case reports of the other SCAs. Findings in 47,XXY males typically include decreased gray and white matter volumes, with most pronounced effects in the frontal and temporal lobes. Functional studies have shown evidence of decreased lateralization. Although the hypogonadism typically found in 47,XXY males may contribute to the decreased brain volume, the observation that 47,XXX females also show decreased brain volume in the presence of normal pubertal maturation suggests a possible direct dosage effect of X chromosome genes. Additional X chromosomes, such as in 49,XXXXY males, are associated with more markedly decreased brain volume and increased incidence of white matter hyperintensities. The limited data regarding effects of having two Y chromosomes (47,XYY) do not find significant differences in brain volume, although there are some reports of increased head size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhoshel K Lenroot
- Child Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
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Leggett V, Jacobs P, Nation K, Scerif G, Bishop DVM. Neurocognitive outcomes of individuals with a sex chromosome trisomy: XXX, XYY, or XXY: a systematic review. Dev Med Child Neurol 2010; 52:119-29. [PMID: 20059514 PMCID: PMC2820350 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2009.03545.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/08/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIM To review systematically the neurodevelopmental characteristics of individuals with sex chromosome trisomies (SCTs). METHOD A bibliographic search identified English-language articles on SCTs. The focus was on studies unbiased by clinical referral, with power of at least 0.69 to detect an effect size of 1.0. RESULTS We identified 35 articles on five neonatally identified samples that had adequate power for our review. An additional 11 studies were included where cases had been identified for reasons other than neurodevelopmental concerns. Individuals with an additional X chromosome had mean IQs that were within broadly normal limits but lower than the respective comparison groups, with verbal IQ most affected. Cognitive outcomes were poorest for females with XXX. Males with XYY had normal-range IQs, but all three SCT groups (XXX, XXY, and XYY) had marked difficulties in speech and language, motor skills, and educational achievement. Nevertheless, most adults with SCTs lived independently. Less evidence was available for brain structure and for attention, social, and psychiatric outcomes. Within each group there was much variation. INTERPRETATION Individuals with SCTs are at risk of cognitive and behavioural difficulties. However, the evidence base is slender, and further research is needed to ascertain the nature, severity, and causes of these difficulties in unselected samples.
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Abstract
The developmental and clinical aspects in the literature on triple X syndrome are reviewed. Prenatal diagnosis depends on karyotyping. The incidence is 1 of 1000 females. At birth, 47,XXX girls have a lower mean birth weight and a smaller head circumference. Triple X diagnosis was not suspected at birth. The maternal age seems to be increased. Toddlers with triple X syndrome show delayed language development. The youngest girls show accelerated growth until puberty. EEG abnormalities seem to be rather common. Many girls show motor-coordination problems and auditory-processing disorders are not rare. Scoliosis is probably more common in adolescent cases. The IQ levels are 20 points below that of controls, and verbal IQ is lowest. The girls struggle with low self-esteem and they need psychological, behavioural and educational support. They perform best in stable families. After leaving school they seem to feel better. In adults, premature ovarian failure seems to be more prevalent than in controls. MRIs of the brain seem to show decreased brain volumes. The 47,XXX women most often find jobs that reflect their performance abilities. Psychotic illness seems to be more prevalent in triple X adult women than in controls. Psychotic disorders respond well to psychotropic drugs. Triple X adults suffer more frequently from cyclothymic and labile personality traits. Research on triple X syndrome may yield more insight into brain and behaviour relations, developmental psychopathology, auditory-processing disorders, EEG disorders, personality and psychotic disorders, etc.
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Ypsilanti A, Ganou M, Koidou I, Grouios G. Digit ratio (2D:4D) in individuals with intellectual disability: Investigating the role of testosterone in the establishment of cerebral lateralisation. Laterality 2008; 13:527-44. [DOI: 10.1080/13576500802117164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Quantitative digital and palmar dermatoglyphics: sexual dimorphism in the Chuvashian population of Russia. HOMO-JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE HUMAN BIOLOGY 2008; 59:317-28. [PMID: 18656864 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchb.2007.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2006] [Accepted: 01/16/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
With the aim of determining sex dimorphism among the Chuvashian population of Russia, digital and palmar dermatoglyphics of 547 individuals (293 males, 254 females) were analyzed. The sex differences for PII, TRC, and AFRC are similar to Indian and Jewish populations. Correlation coefficients between individual finger ridge counts are a little lower than in Jews but are almost equal to Indian populations. The Mantel test of matrix correlation between sexes for 22 traits shows a very good similarity. However, sex differences of palmar traits display different levels when compared with other human populations. In light of this, our evidence indicates the possible role of environmental (prenatal) factors in the realization of dermatoglyphic sex differences. The development of palmar dermatoglyphics has had a relatively longer growth period compared with fingers [Cummins, H., 1929. The topographic history of the volar pads (walking pads, tast ballen) in the human embryo. Embryol. 20, 103-126]. The palmar dermatoglyphic pattern of affinities therefore corresponds better than fingers to the ethno historical background of the populations, ascertained by numerous studies.
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Vawter MP, Harvey PD, DeLisi LE. Dysregulation of X-linked gene expression in Klinefelter's syndrome and association with verbal cognition. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2007; 144B:728-34. [PMID: 17347996 PMCID: PMC2094046 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Klinefelter's Syndrome (KS) is a chromosomal karyotype with one or more extra X chromosomes. KS individuals often show language impairment and the phenotype might be due to overexpression of genes on the extra X chromosome(s). We profiled mRNA derived from lymphoblastoid cell lines from males with documented KS and control males using the Affymetrix U133P microarray platform. There were 129 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in KS group compared with controls after Benjamini-Hochberg false discovery adjustment. The DEGs included 14 X chromosome genes which were significantly over-represented. The Y chromosome had zero DEGs. In exploratory analysis of gene expression-cognition relationships, 12 DEGs showed significant correlation of expression with measures of verbal cognition in KS. Overexpression of one pseudoautosomal gene, GTPBP6 (GTP binding protein 6, putative) was inversely correlated with verbal IQ (r = -0.86, P < 0.001) and four other measures of verbal ability. Overexpression of XIST was found in KS compared to XY controls suggesting that silencing of many genes on the X chromosome might occur in KS similar to XX females. The microarray findings for eight DEGs were validated by quantitative PCR. The 14 X chromosome DEGs were not differentially expressed in prior studies comparing female and male brains suggesting a dysregulation profile unique to KS. Examination of X-linked DEGs, such as GTPBP6, TAF9L, and CXORF21, that show verbal cognition-gene expression correlations may establish a causal link between these genes, neurodevelopment, and language function. A screen of candidate genes may serve as biomarkers of KS for early diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marquis P Vawter
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, Irvine, California, USA.
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Davies W, Wilkinson LS. It is not all hormones: Alternative explanations for sexual differentiation of the brain. Brain Res 2006; 1126:36-45. [PMID: 17101121 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.09.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2006] [Revised: 09/22/2006] [Accepted: 09/22/2006] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Males and females of many species differ with regard to neurodevelopment, ongoing brain function and behavior. For many years, it was assumed that these differences primarily arose due to hormonal masculinization of the male brain (and to a lesser extent hormonal feminization of the female brain). Recent elegant experiments in model systems have revealed that, while gonadal hormones undoubtedly play an important role in sexual differentiation of the brain, they are not the only possible mechanism for this phenomenon. In the present review, we discuss the concept that genes residing upon the sex chromosomes (which are asymmetrically inherited between males and females) may influence sexually dimorphic neurobiology directly, and suggest possible mechanisms. Future work will be directed towards understanding the extent and specificity with which sex-linked genes and hormones define brain structure and function, and towards elucidating potential interactions between the two mechanisms. Ultimately, it is hoped that such studies will provide insights into why men and women are differentially vulnerable to certain mental disorders, and will enable the development of effective sex-tailored therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Davies
- The Babraham Institute, Babraham Research Campus, Babraham, Cambridge CB2 4AT, UK.
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Williams NA, Close JP, Giouzeli M, Crow TJ. Accelerated evolution of Protocadherin11X/Y: a candidate gene-pair for cerebral asymmetry and language. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2006; 141B:623-33. [PMID: 16874762 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
It has been argued that cerebral asymmetry (the "torque") is the characteristic that defines the human brain and that morphological findings in psychosis are consistent with a deviation in this sex-dependent dimension of brain growth. Evidence from sex chromosome aneuploidies and an association within families between sex and handedness is consistent with the presence of a determinant of cerebral asymmetry (a possible correlate of language) on the X and the Y chromosomes. During hominid evolution a 3.5 Mb translocation occurred from the ancestral X chromosome to the Y chromosome, resulting in duplication of the Protocadherin11X gene, such that it is represented on the X and Y chromosomes in man, whereas there is a single X-linked gene in other mammals. We re-date the duplicative translocation to 6 million years ago, that is, close to the chimpanzee-hominid bifurcation. Sequence comparisons with the chimpanzee, bonobo, gorilla, and orangutan indicate that in contrast to earlier purifying selection there has been accelerated change in the Protocadherin11X ectodomain as well as the Protocadherin11Y sequence in the hominid lineage since the duplication. The evolutionary sequence of events together with the prior case for an X-Y homologous gene suggests that this gene-pair is a candidate for the evolution of hominid-specific characteristics including the sexual dimorphism of cerebral asymmetry, a putative correlate of language.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nic A Williams
- Prince of Wales International Centre for SANE Research, University of Oxford, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
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DeLisi LE, Maurizio AM, Svetina C, Ardekani B, Szulc K, Nierenberg J, Leonard J, Harvey PD. Klinefelter's syndrome (XXY) as a genetic model for psychotic disorders. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2005; 135B:15-23. [PMID: 15729733 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Males with an extra-X chromosome (Klinefelter's syndrome) frequently, although not always, have an increased prevalence of psychiatric disturbances that range from attention deficit disorder in childhood to schizophrenia or severe affective disorders during adulthood. In addition, they frequently have characteristic verbal deficits. Thus, examining brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of these individuals may yield clues to the influence of X chromosome genes on brain structural variation corresponding to psychiatric and cognitive disorders. Eleven adult XXY and 11 age matched XY male controls were examined with a structured psychiatric interview, battery of cognitive tests, and an MRI scan. Ten of eleven of the XXY men had some form of psychiatric disturbance, four of whom had auditory hallucinations compared with none of the XY controls. Significantly smaller frontal lobe, temporal lobe, and superior temporal gyrus (STG) cortical volumes were observed bilaterally in the XXY men. In addition, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) of white matter integrity resulted in four regions of reduced fractional anisotropy (FA) in XXY men compared with controls, three in the left hemisphere, and one on the right. These correspond to the left posterior limb of the internal capsule, bilateral anterior cingulate, and left arcuate bundle. Specific cognitive deficits in executive functioning attributable to frontal lobe integrity and verbal comprehension were noted. Thus, excess expression of one or more X chromosome genes influences both gray and white matter development in frontal and temporal lobes, as well as white matter tracts leading to them, and may in this way contribute to the executive and language deficits observed in these adults. Future prospective studies are needed to determine which gene or genes are involved and whether their expression could be modified with appropriate treatments early in life. Brain expressed genes that are known to escape inactivation on extra-X chromosomes would be prime candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynn E DeLisi
- The Department of Psychiatry New York University, New York, New York 10016, USA.
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Karmakar B, Yakovenko K, Kobyliansky E. Multivariate analysis of sexual dimorphism in two types of dermatoglyphic traits in five endogamous populations of West Bengal, India. HOMO-JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE HUMAN BIOLOGY 2003; 53:263-78. [PMID: 12733400 DOI: 10.1078/0018-442x-00052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Five different endogamous populations who encompass the main social rank in the caste hierarchy of West Bengal were analysed for this report. The present approach is to compare the pattern of sex differences/similarities exhibited by two different sets of dermatoglyphic traits. Cluster and discriminant analysis and Mantel test of matrix correlations were performed. The nature of variation between sexes within population groups and two types of variable sets has a good similarity in all five populations. These results strongly suggest that the two categories of dermatoglyphic variables provide similar possibilities to discriminate between the sexes in populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Karmakar
- Anthropology and Human Genetics Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta, India.
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Abstract
49,XXXXY syndrome is a rare sex chromosome aneuploidy syndrome characterized by mental retardation, severe speech impairment, craniofacial abnormalities, multiple skeletal defects, and genital abnormalities. We describe a 13-year-old boy with 49,XXXXY syndrome, language impairment, seizures, and left-hemisphere magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities and review the distinctive neurologic, cognitive, and behavioral phenotypes associated with this disorder. Finally, we discuss testosterone supplementation in the treatment of this syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Galasso
- Division of Paediatric Neurology, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Italy
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Patwardhan AJ, Brown WE, Bender BG, Linden MG, Eliez S, Reiss AL. Reduced size of the amygdala in individuals with 47,XXY and 47,XXX karyotypes. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL GENETICS 2002; 114:93-8. [PMID: 11840512 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.10154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The excess of 47,XXX and 47,XXY karyotypes found in cytogenetic screening studies of individuals with schizophrenia has given support for an increased risk of psychiatric illness among men and women with sex chromosomal aneuploidy (SCA). Mesial temporal lobe structures, including the amygdala and hippocampus, are thought to be associated with abnormalities of mood and behavior in humans and in the neurobiology of schizophrenia. This study focuses on variations in volumes of mesial temporal lobe structures in men and women with SCA. Utilizing an unselected birth cohort of subjects with SCA and high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), we investigated the neuroanatomical consequences of a supernumerary X chromosome on the morphology of the amygdala and hippocampus. Regional and total brain volumes were measured in 10 subjects with 47,XXY, 10 subjects with 47,XXX, and 20 euploid controls. Amygdala volumes were significantly reduced in men with 47,XXY, compared to control men, while the decrease in women with 47,XXX was not as pronounced. Hippocampus volumes were preserved in both groups, compared to same-gender controls. Longitudinal studies of SCA individuals have shown an increased incidence of mild psychopathology and behavioral dysfunction in men with 47,XXY and more overt psychiatric illness in women with 47,XXX, compared to control populations. The alteration in amygdala volumes in individuals with a supernumerary X chromosome may provide a neuroanatomic basis for these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anil J Patwardhan
- Stanford Psychiatry Neuroimaging Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305-5719, USA
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Bender BG, Linden MG, Harmon RJ. Neuropsychological and functional cognitive skills of 35 unselected adults with sex chromosome abnormalities. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL GENETICS 2001; 102:309-13. [PMID: 11503155 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.1490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
This report presents data defining the neuropsychological and cognitive phenotypes of a group of adults with sex chromosome abnormalities identified at birth through the chromosome screening of 40,000 consecutive newborns between 1964 and 1974. In all three nonmosaic groups, reading skills were impaired and intelligence quotients were on average reduced more than 20 points relative to controls. The 47,XXX women demonstrated greatest overall impairment, including reduced scores on tests of conceptualization and problem solving. 45,X women demonstrated impairment in spatial thinking skills, and 47,XXY men in verbal processing skills. No reduced scores were found in the female mosaic group. Marked variability in scores was seen in all groups; some propositi have been unable to hold any job, whereas others have completed college and are professionally employed.
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Affiliation(s)
- B G Bender
- Department of Pediatrics, National Jewish Medical and Research Center, 1400 Jackson Street, Denver, CO 80206, USA.
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Reiss AL, Eliez S, Schmitt JE, Patwardhan A, Haberecht M. Brain imaging in neurogenetic conditions: realizing the potential of behavioral neurogenetics research. MENTAL RETARDATION AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES RESEARCH REVIEWS 2000; 6:186-97. [PMID: 10982496 DOI: 10.1002/1098-2779(2000)6:3<186::aid-mrdd6>3.0.co;2-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Behavioral neurogenetics research is a new method of scientific inquiry that focuses on investigation of neurodevelopmental dysfunction associated with specific genetic conditions. This research method provides a powerful tool for scientific inquiry into human gene-brain-behavior linkages that complements more traditional research approaches. In particular, the use of specific genetic conditions as models of common behavioral and cognitive disorders occurring in the general population can reveal insights into neurodevelopmental pathways that might otherwise be obscured or diluted when investigating more heterogeneous, behaviorally defined subject groups. In this paper, we review five genetic conditions that commonly give rise to identifiable neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disability in children: fragile X syndrome, velo-cardio-facial syndrome, Williams syndrome, Turner syndrome, and Klinefelter syndrome. While emphasis is placed on describing the brain morphology associated with these conditions as revealed by neuroimaging studies, we also include information pertaining to molecular genetic, postmortem, and neurobehavioral investigations to illustrate how behavioral neurogenetics research can contribute to an improved understanding of brain disorders in childhood.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Reiss
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
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Patwardhan AJ, Eliez S, Bender B, Linden MG, Reiss AL. Brain morphology in Klinefelter syndrome: extra X chromosome and testosterone supplementation. Neurology 2000; 54:2218-23. [PMID: 10881243 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.54.12.2218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study focuses on variation in brain morphology associated with supernumerary X chromosome and Klinefelter syndrome (KS). Using an unselected birth cohort of KS subjects and high-resolution MRI, the authors investigated the neuroanatomic consequences of the 47,XXY karyotype in the presence and absence of exogenous testosterone supplementation. METHODS Regional brain volumes were measured in 10 subjects with KS and 10 age-matched control men. Five of the KS subjects had received testosterone supplementation since puberty (KS+T) and five had not (KS-T). RESULTS KS subjects showed significant (p < 0.01) reduction in left temporal lobe gray matter volumes compared with normal control subjects. Differences in left temporal gray volumes were also significant between the KS+T and KS-T groups (p < 0.01). Verbal fluency scores were significantly different between the KS+T and KS-T groups as well. CONCLUSION Supernumerary X chromosome material in men is associated with a reduction in left temporal lobe gray matter, a finding that is consistent with the verbal and language deficits associated with KS. Also, relative preservation of gray matter in the left temporal region is associated with exposure to exogenous androgen during development. A history of testosterone supplementation also appears to be associated with increased verbal fluency scores in KS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Patwardhan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA 94305-5719, USA
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE A case of XXYY associated with schizophrenia is presented. CLINICAL PICTURE A European male with tall stature, hypogonadism, and mild grade intellectual handicap with significantly lower verbal than performance Intelligence Quotient (IQ) exhibited features of chronic paranoid schizophrenia, along with impulsive aggression. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME A trial of testosterone replacement exacerbated aggression. Psychotic symptoms persisted despite antipsychotic therapy. CONCLUSIONS This is perhaps the first report of the XXYY syndrome associated with schizophrenia. The psychosis occurs more often in XXY and XXX than normal subjects, providing a clue to locating a gene predisposing to schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Lee
- Graylands Hospital, Mt Claremont, Australia
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Rovet J, Netley C, Keenan M, Bailey J, Stewart D. The psychoeducational profile of boys with Klinefelter syndrome. JOURNAL OF LEARNING DISABILITIES 1996; 29:180-196. [PMID: 8820203 DOI: 10.1177/002221949602900208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Klinefelter syndrome (KS) affects about 1 in 900 males due to an extra X chromosome. Although there are no obvious physical features associated with childhood KS, many boys demonstrate a cognitive deficit in verbal processing. The first section of this article integrates the extant literature on intelligence and achievement outcomes in boys with KS. The second section presents our findings from a 20-year study involving one of the largest unselected cohorts of boys with KS. We followed 36 boys with KS and 33 sibling controls from 6 until 20 years of age. Boys with KS are shown to demonstrate a verbal cognitive deficit and significant underachievement in reading and spelling, as well as in arithmetic. These problems, which are evident from early school years, increase with age such that by late adolescence, boys with KS are four to five grade levels behind. In addition, we also found that they were most likely to have a generalized type of learning disability, with very few boys indicating a pure reading or pure arithmetic problem. They also showed deficits in written language skills and acquisition of knowledge-based subject material were also problematic. Despite significant underachievement and frequent grade failure, many boys with KS had completed high school, and a few were also pursuing postsecondary educations. The discussion section examines how their language-based disability affects comprehension and learning, leading to underachievement.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Rovet
- The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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35
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Netley C, Taylor MJ, Molan M. Event-related potentials (ERPs) and intelligence in neonatally identified 47,XXY males. Clin Genet 1995; 47:150-4. [PMID: 7634538 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-0004.1995.tb03948.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The event-related potentials (ERPs) of 18 extra X males (mean age 18.1 years) were recorded during the course of phonemic and orthographic discrimination tasks. The N2 and P3 latencies and amplitudes of subjects were examined in relation to their verbal and nonverbal intelligence test scores based on assessments at three ages: prior to puberty, during puberty and at sexual maturity. The results indicated that verbal abilities at most test occasions were significantly related to P3 latencies. Nonverbal abilities were largely uncorrelated with ERPs. The findings suggest that the verbal deficits of extra X males are the result of unlateralized individual differences in neural cognitive processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Netley
- Department of Psychology, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada
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36
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Nass RD. Sex differences in learning abilities and disabilities. ANNALS OF DYSLEXIA 1993; 43:61-77. [PMID: 24233985 DOI: 10.1007/bf02928174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Boys more often than girls are affected by all the cognitive developmental disorders of childhood. Differences in the etiology of learning disabilities as well as general sex differences in learning styles in boys versus girls may explain the male preponderance in the prevalence of learning disabilities. The effects on learning of hormonal sex differences, maturation rate differences, and differences in frequency of perinatal brain injury will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- R D Nass
- Department of Neurology, New York University Medical Center, New York, New York
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Arrieta MI, Criado B, Martinez B, Lobato MN, Gil A, Lostao CM. Fluctuating dermatoglyphic asymmetry: genetic and prenatal influences. Ann Hum Biol 1993; 20:557-63. [PMID: 8257081 DOI: 10.1080/03014469300002962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Genetic and environmental prenatal factors influencing the fluctuating asymmetry of the a-b interdigital ridge count are examined. From the results obtained we can conclude that fluctuating asymmetry of the a-b interdigital ridge count is poorly influenced by genetic factors. We suggest that fluctuating asymmetry of dermatoglyphics provides a good measure of developmental stability in humans, especially for males. The results also indicate that random environmental factors, acting before the 19th week of embryonic development, could be related to the differential timing of maturation of the sexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- M I Arrieta
- Facultad de Universidad del Pais Vasco, Bilbao, Spain
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Money J. Specific neuro-cognitive impairments associated with Turner (45,X) and Klinefelter (47,XXY) syndromes: a review. SOCIAL BIOLOGY 1993; 40:147-151. [PMID: 8146690 DOI: 10.1080/19485565.1993.9988841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
In Turner syndrome, there is a high incidence of neuro-cognitive impairment specific to the mental processing and sequencing of rotational transformations of shapes in the spatial dimensions of left-right, up-down, and back-front. In Klinefelter syndrome, the corresponding neuro-cognitive impairment is specific to the mental processing of sequence and synchrony in the temporal dimension, including the temporal dimension of language.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Money
- Psychohormonal Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University and Hospital, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
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39
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Abstract
This study examined the relations between verbal and performance IQs, time of pubertal onset and testosterone levels from 13 to 16 years of age in a sample of 30 males with a supernumerary X chromosome. The findings indicated that verbal IQs measured prior to puberty, during puberty and at mid-adolescence were strongly related to relatively early pubertal onset and testosterone levels. Performance IQs had little or no relationship with the same variables. The results are discussed in terms of several different psychobiological models.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Netley
- Department of Psychology, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada
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Abstract
Behavioural, psychological, and cognitive profiles of three cases, including a 5 year old male with a 49,XXXXY karyotype and a (3;15) translocation, a 9 year old male with a 49,XXXXY karyotype, and a 32 year old male with 48,XXXY/49,XXXXY mosaicism, are presented. Significant behavioural problems were seen in the two older patients. The degree of mental retardation and impairment of language abilities were shown to be more severe in the older subjects as well. These findings are discussed with respect to the effects of the X chromosome on brain development.
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Affiliation(s)
- C A Lomelino
- Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
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42
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Mandoki MW, Sumner GS, Hoffman RP, Riconda DL. A review of Klinefelter's syndrome in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1991; 30:167-72. [PMID: 2016217 DOI: 10.1097/00004583-199103000-00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Klinefelter's syndrome (XXY syndrome) has been defined as the spectrum of phenotypic features resulting from a sex chromosome complement that includes two or more X chromosomes and one or more Y chromosomes. Cytogenetic surveys conducted across the world have identified a sizable population of XXY males, who have been studied extensively from the newborn period through adolescence. The longitudinal studies of these boys have produced an accurate and reliable account of the growth and development of the XXY male. There now exists a growing body of knowledge that suggests that XXY boys often experience language deficits, neuromaturational lag, academic difficulties, and psychological distress, which may be reduced or ameliorated by early identification, anticipatory guidance, and proper medical management.
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Affiliation(s)
- M W Mandoki
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida Health Science Center, Jacksonville 32209
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43
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Abstract
Developmental language and learning disabilities in children can take many different forms and can result from a variety of causes. Research to date has focused primarily on specific disabilities in learning, which are characterized by a significant delay or disorder in one aspect of learning against a background of otherwise normal development. Learning disabilities affecting language and/or reading acquisition (developmental dysphasia and dyslexia) have been studied most thoroughly. Verbal learning disabilities occur more frequently in boys than in girls, and there is a higher than expected incidence of left-handedness among affected children. Although there are many reasons why a child may have delayed or disordered language development, differential diagnosis of specific developmental language or reading disorders calls for ruling out mental retardation, peripheral auditory or visual dysfunction, autism, frank neurological impairments such as hemiplegia or seizure disorder, and severe social deprivation or lack of educational opportunity. The typical profile of a developmentally dysphasic or dyslexic child is one who shows a marked discrepancy between nonverbal (performance) IQ and verbal IQ, with a history of delayed or disordered speech, language and/or reading development. Such a child usually performs quite normally on visual spatial tasks, while demonstrating severe deficits in tasks of auditory temporal processing, motor sequencing, phonological processing and memory, language, reading and spelling. This characteristic neuropsychological profile may suggest left hemisphere dysfunction or a failure to develop normal cerebral lateralization. The etiology of these developmental learning disorders is unknown, but there is evidence of familial aggregation, indicating a potential genetic basis. Although these children respond to remediation, longitudinal studies have shown that the symptoms often persist into adulthood (see Tallal, 1988, for a more detailed discussion).
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Affiliation(s)
- P Tallal
- Rutgers University, Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Newark, New Jersey 07102
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Abstract
Matched groups of homosexual men, heterosexual men, and heterosexual women (n = 38 per group) were tested on three measures of spatial ability and two measures of fluency that typically reveal sex differences. For the three spatial tests and one of the fluency tests, the mean performance of homosexual men fell between those of the heterosexual men and women. The pattern of cognitive skills of homosexual men was different from that of heterosexual men: homosexual men had lower spatial ability relative to fluency. The cognitive pattern of homosexual men was not significantly different from that of heterosexual women. In addition, the results suggest that homosexual men classified on the basis of hand preference may form two subgroups that differ in cognitive pattern. These findings are compatible with the hypothesis that there is a neurobiological factor related to sexual differentiation in the etiology of homosexuality.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M McCormick
- Department of Psychology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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O'Boyle MW, Hellige JB. Cerebral hemisphere asymmetry and individual differences in cognition. LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/1041-6080(89)90008-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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47
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Tallal P, Ross R, Curtiss S. Unexpected sex-ratios in families of language/learning-impaired children. Neuropsychologia 1989; 27:987-98. [PMID: 2771037 DOI: 10.1016/0028-3932(89)90074-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
There is a well-documented propensity of males affected with developmental language/learning impairment. Results from this study demonstrate, unexpectedly, that this sex-ratio difference of males to females with developmental language/learning disorders was found to occur significantly only in families with a language/learning-impaired mother. In addition, a remarkably aberrant offspring sex-ratio was found in families of language/learning-impaired children who had an affected mother, but not father. Mothers who were developmentally language/learning-impaired had three times as many sons as daughters, and five times as many language/learning-impaired sons as daughters. Genetic and hormonal influences that might affect both sex-ratio and neuroanatomical development and disorders are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Tallal
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neurosciences, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey 07102
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Netley C. Relationships between hemispheric lateralization, sex hormones, quality of parenting and adjustment in 47,XXY males prior to puberty. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1988; 29:281-7. [PMID: 3417804 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.1988.tb00716.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
This paper reports findings of a study examining the degree to which intelligence, levels of sex-steroids and gonadotropins, quality of parenting and laboratory-based measures of left and right hemispheric specialization are associated with individual differences in psychosocial functioning in pre-pubertal 47,XXY males. The results indicate that activity level and freedom from tendencies towards withdrawal in these subjects are best predicted by the normality of their left hemispheric functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Netley
- Department of Psychology, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada
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49
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Porter ME, Gardner HA, DeFeudis P, Endler NS. Verbal deficits in Klinefelter (XXY) adults living in the community. Clin Genet 1988; 33:246-53. [PMID: 3359682 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-0004.1988.tb03445.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Forty-two adult males--10 with Klinefelter's syndrome (karyotype XXY), 17 with normal sex chromosome karyotype (XY) but with physical signs of hypogonadism, and 15 presumed to be normal both chromosomally and hormonally--completed tests of Verbal and Nonverbal ability. It was predicted: a) that the XXY group would perform more poorly than the other two groups on tests of Verbal ability, and b) that the XY, hypogonadal group would perform more poorly than the others on tests of Non-verbal ability. The first hypothesis was supported. However, in spite of measurable verbal deficits, the XXY men (whose parents were more highly educated than those of the other two groups) did not appear to be underachievers. Rather, they were, in general, as well educated, as likely to be employed, and of socioeconomic status equivalent to that of the other men in the study. These findings are discussed briefly in terms of implications for early childhood education and genetic counselling. The second hypothesis was not supported: this is attributed to presumed heterogeneity of etiology of hypogonadism in the XY, hypogonadal group.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Porter
- York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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50
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Netley C, Rovet J. Relations between a dermatoglyphic measure, hemispheric specialization, and intellectual abilities in 47,XXY males. Brain Cogn 1987; 6:153-60. [PMID: 3593555 DOI: 10.1016/0278-2626(87)90116-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Verbal IQ is usually lower than performance IQ in neonatally identified 47,XXY males. A dermatoglyphic measure reflecting prenatal growth rates and indices of sex-related hormonal functioning are also frequently abnormal in 47,XXY males. This paper presents evidence indicating that a measure of prenatal growth rate predicts right hemispheric specialization for nonverbal processing in extra X males, whereas levels of testosterone, estradiol, luteinizing hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormones do not. Findings are also reported which indicate that the low verbal IQs of 47,XXY males are the result of abnormalities in right hemispheric functioning.
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