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Elferink H, Bruekers JPJ, Veeneman GH, Boltje TJ. A comprehensive overview of substrate specificity of glycoside hydrolases and transporters in the small intestine : "A gut feeling". Cell Mol Life Sci 2020; 77:4799-4826. [PMID: 32506169 PMCID: PMC7658089 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-020-03564-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The human body is able to process and transport a complex variety of carbohydrates, unlocking their nutritional value as energy source or as important building block. The endogenous glycosyl hydrolases (glycosidases) and glycosyl transporter proteins located in the enterocytes of the small intestine play a crucial role in this process and digest and/or transport nutritional sugars based on their structural features. It is for these reasons that glycosidases and glycosyl transporters are interesting therapeutic targets to combat sugar related diseases (such as diabetes) or to improve drug delivery. In this review we provide a detailed overview focused on the molecular structure of the substrates involved as a solid base to start from and to fuel research in the area of therapeutics and diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidde Elferink
- Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen P J Bruekers
- Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Thomas J Boltje
- Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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Van Noten N, Van Liefferinge E, Degroote J, De Smet S, Desmet T, Michiels J. Fate of Thymol and Its Monoglucosides in the Gastrointestinal Tract of Piglets. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:5241-5248. [PMID: 32201813 PMCID: PMC7081444 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b04309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The monoterpene thymol has been proposed as a valuable alternative to in-feed antibiotics in animal production. However, the effectiveness of the antimicrobial is comprised by its fast absorption in the upper gastrointestinal tract. In this work, two glucoconjugates, thymol α-d-glucopyranoside (TαG) and thymol β-d-glucopyranoside (TβG), were compared with free thymol for their potential to deliver higher concentrations of the active compound to the distal small intestine of supplemented piglets. Additionally, an analytical method was developed and validated for the simultaneous quantification of thymol and its glucoconjugates in different matrices. In stomach contents of pigs fed with 3333 μmol kg-1 thymol, TαG, or TβG, total thymol concentrations amounted to 3048, 2357, and 1820 μmol kg-1 dry matter, respectively. In glucoconjugate-fed pigs, over 30% of this concentration was present in the unconjugated form, suggesting partial hydrolysis in the stomach. No quantifiable levels of thymol or glucoconjugates were detected in the small intestine or cecum for any treatment, indicating that conjugation with one glucose unit did not sufficiently protect thymol from early absorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noémie Van Noten
- Department
of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Elout Van Liefferinge
- Department
of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jeroen Degroote
- Department
of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Stefaan De Smet
- Department
of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Tom Desmet
- Department
of Biotechnology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Joris Michiels
- Department
of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- . Phone: +32 9/264.90.00
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Nakamura J, Asai K, Nishida K, Sasaki H. A Novel Prodrug of Salicylic Acid, Salicylic Acid-glycylglycine Conjugate, Utilizing the Hydrolysis in Rabbit Intestinal Microorganisms. J Pharm Pharmacol 2011; 44:713-6. [PMID: 1360520 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1992.tb05505.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The hydrolysis of salicylic acid-glycylglycine conjugate (salicyl-glycylglycine) following oral, intravenous, intracaecal and rectal administration (434, 72, 36 and 36 μmol kg−1, respectively: equivalent to salicylic acid) was examined in rabbits to develop a novel prodrug of salicylic acid. Salicylic acid was detected in the blood 2 h after oral administration of salicyl-glycylglycine and it reached a maximum level (55·6 μg mL−1) at 15 h, whereas a small amount of salicyl-glycylglycine was found in the blood. In contrast, unchanged salicyl-glycylglycine was found mainly in the blood following its intravenous administration, suggesting the involvement of presystemic deconjugation in the hydrolysis of salicyl-glycylglycine. Immediate and very extensive salicyclic acid formation in the caecum was observed following intracaecal administration of salicyl-glycylglycine, suggesting that the intestinal microorganisms were responsible for the biotransformation of this compound. In-vitro incubation of salicyl-glycylglycine with caecal content showed that salicyl-glycylglycine was hydrolysed efficiently in the caecum. Consequently, the blood concentration of salicylic acid was prolonged extensively following rectal administration of salicylglycylglycine, indicating the usefulness of salicyl-glycylglycine as a prodrug of salicylic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Nakamura
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Japan
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Tiwari G, Tiwari R, Wal P, Wal A, Rai AK. Primary and novel approaches for colon targeted drug delivery – A review. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.5138/ijdd.2010.0975.0215.02006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Gao SQ, Sun Y, Kopečková P, Peterson CM, Kopeček J. Pharmacokinetic modeling of absorption behavior of 9-aminocamptothecin (9-AC) released from colon-specific HPMA copolymer-9-AC conjugate in rats. Pharm Res 2008; 25:218-26. [PMID: 17929146 PMCID: PMC3136142 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-007-9465-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2007] [Accepted: 10/01/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To quantitate and predict colon-specific 9-aminocamptothecin (9-AC) release from the N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide (HPMA) copolymer-9-AC conjugate and its absorption behavior after oral administration in rats. METHODS Drug distribution in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and the plasma concentration-time profile of 9-AC released from the HPMA copolymer conjugate were predicted using the degradation, transit, and absorption rate constants in cecum. The fate of 9-AC in cecum and liver was measured by in-situ cecum absorption and liver perfusion. RESULTS Following oral administration of the conjugate, 9-AC was released rapidly in cecum. Based on the pharmacokinetic model, up to 60% of the dose was in the cecum at ~6 h, and 7% of the dose still remained there at 24 h. The predicted plasma concentration curve for released 9-AC after an oral dose of 3 mg/kg of 9-AC equivalent increased gradually and reached a peak of 98 nM at 7 h, then started decreasing slowly to 16 nM at 24 h. The bioavailability value was estimated as 0.31 after the first-pass elimination. CONCLUSIONS A pharmacokinetic model delineated the impact of GI transit, drug absorption rate, and first-pass metabolism on drug disposition following oral administration of HPMA copolymer-9-AC conjugate in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song-Qi Gao
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry/CCCD, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA
| | - Yongen Sun
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA
| | - Pavla Kopečková
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry/CCCD, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA
| | - C. Matthew Peterson
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA
| | - Jindřich Kopeček
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry/CCCD, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA
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Lee HJ, Cooperwood JS, You Z, Ko DH. Prodrug and antedrug: two diametrical approaches in designing safer drugs. Arch Pharm Res 2002; 25:111-36. [PMID: 12009024 DOI: 10.1007/bf02976552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The prodrug and antedrug concepts, which were developed to overcome the physical and pharmacological shortcomings of various therapeutic classes of agents, employ diametrically different metabolic transformations. The prodrug undergoes a predictable metabolic activation prior to exhibiting its pharmacological effects in a target tissue while the antedrug undergoes metabolic deactivation in the systemic circulation upon leaving a target tissue. An increased therapeutic index is the aspiration for both approaches in designing as well as evaluation criteria. The recent research endeavors of prodrugs include the gene-directed and antibody-directed enzymatic activation of a molecule in a targeted tissue, organ specific delivery, improved bioavailabilities of nucleosides and cellular penetration of nucleotides. As for antedrugs, emphasis in research has been based upon the design and synthesis of systemically inactive molecule by incorporating a metabolically labile functional group into an active molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry J Lee
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee 32307, USA.
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Kompella UB, Lee VH. Delivery systems for penetration enhancement of peptide and protein drugs: design considerations. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2001; 46:211-45. [PMID: 11259842 DOI: 10.1016/s0169-409x(00)00137-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
This paper discusses the challenges to be met in designing delivery systems that maximize the absorption of peptide and protein drugs from the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. The ideal delivery system for either route of administration is one that will release its contents only at a favorable region of absorption, where the delivery system attaches by virtue of specific interaction with surface determinants unique to that region and where the delivery system travels at a rate independent of the transitory constraints inherent of the route of administration. Such a delivery system, which is as yet unavailable, will benefit not only peptide and protein drugs, but other poorly absorbed drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- U B Kompella
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, John Stauffer Pharmaceutical Sciences Center, University of Southern California School of Pharmacy, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Marvola M, Nykänen P, Rautio S, Isonen N, Autere A. Enteric polymers as binders and coating materials in multiple-unit site-specific drug delivery systems. Eur J Pharm Sci 1999; 7:259-67. [PMID: 9845814 DOI: 10.1016/s0928-0987(98)00032-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to develop a multiple-unit, site-specific drug formulation allowing targeting of drug release in the colon. Initially, characteristics of matrix pellets containing various enteric polymers as binders were tested. An enteric coating was then added to the formulations. Ibuprofen and furosemide were used as model drugs. The former is absorbed throughout the gastrointestinal tract, the latter only from upper parts. Methacrylate copolymers, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinates and cellulose acetate phthalate were used as enteric polymers. The properties of the products were initially tested via dissolution studies at different pHs, then via bioavailability studies in healthy volunteers. The main conclusion was that drug release can be targeted on the distal part of the small intestine and the colon by preparing film-coated matrix pellets in which enteric polymers dissolving at pH approximately 7 have been used both as binders in the pellets and as coating material. This conclusion is based on the finding that absorption of ibuprofen from the formulations developed was adequate, with a lag-time of about 2 h and tmax values at 4-5 h, where as absorption of furosemide from the analogous products was negligible. It was also found that uncoated pellets as such could represent a slow-release formulation for furosemide, a problem drug as far as modified-release products are concerned.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Marvola
- Division of Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, Department of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, FIN-00014 Helsinki, Finland
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Krishnaiah YS, Satyanarayana S, Rama Prasad YV, Narasimha Rao S. Gamma scintigraphic studies on guar gum matrix tablets for colonic drug delivery in healthy human volunteers. J Control Release 1998; 55:245-52. [PMID: 9795074 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-3659(98)00057-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
A novel colon-specific drug delivery system based on a polysaccharide, guar gum, was evaluated by conducting gamma scintigraphic studies using technetium-99m-DTPA as tracer, in six healthy male human volunteers. Scintigraphs taken at regular intervals have shown that some amount of tracer present on the surface of the tablets was released in stomach and small intestine and the bulk of the tracer present in the tablet mass was delivered to the colon. The colonic arrival time of the tablets was found to be 2 to 4 h. On entering the colon, the tablets were found to be degraded in five out of six volunteers thereby releasing a larger amount of the tracer. The study clearly demonstrates that guar gum, in the form of directly compressed matrix tablets, is a potential carrier for colon-specific drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y S Krishnaiah
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Engineering, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam 530 003, A.P., India
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10
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Krishnaiah Y, Satyanarayana S, Rama Prasad Y, Narasimha Rao S. Evaluation of guar gum as a compression coat for drug targeting to colon. Int J Pharm 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0378-5173(98)00172-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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11
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Prasad YV, Krishnaiah YS, Satyanarayana S. In vitro evaluation of guar gum as a carrier for colon-specific drug delivery. J Control Release 1998; 51:281-7. [PMID: 9685926 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-3659(97)00181-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
A novel tablet formulation for oral administration using guar gum as the carrier and indomethacin as a model drug has been investigated for colon-specific drug delivery using in vitro methods. Drug release studies under conditions mimicking mouth to colon transit have shown that guar gum protects the drug from being released completely in the physiological environment of stomach and small intestine. Studies in pH 6.8 phosphate buffered saline (PBS) containing rat caecal contents have demonstrated the susceptibility of guar gum to the colonic bacterial enzyme action with consequent drug release. The pre-treatment of rats orally with 1 ml of 2% w/v aqueous dispersion of guar gum for 3 days induced enzymes specifically acting on guar gum thereby increasing drug release. A further increase in drug release was observed with rat caecal contents obtained after 7 days of pre-treatment. The presence of 4% w/v of caecal contents obtained after 3 days and 7 days of enzyme induction showed biphasic drug release curves. The results illustrate the usefulness of guar gum as a potential carrier for colon-specific drug delivery. The study also reveals that the use of 4% w/v of rat caecal contents in PBS, obtained after 7 days of enzyme induction provide the best conditions for in vitro evaluation of guar gum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y V Prasad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Andhra University, India
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12
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Affiliation(s)
- C S Leopold
- Institut für Pharmazeutische Technologie, Düsseldorf
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13
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Leopold CS, Friend DR. In vivo pharmacokinetic study for the assessment of poly(L-aspartic acid) as a drug carrier for colon-specific drug delivery. JOURNAL OF PHARMACOKINETICS AND BIOPHARMACEUTICS 1995; 23:397-406. [PMID: 8882747 DOI: 10.1007/bf02353640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids remain one of the mainstays of therapy for acute attacks of inflammatory bowel disease despite systemic side effects that limit their use. Prodrugs that selectively deliver glucocorticoids to the colon may lower the required dose and side effects. Because enzymes of gut microflora are able to cleave certain peptide and ester bonds, the ability of an ester prodrug consisting of dexamethasone (DX) as model drug and poly(L-aspartic acid) (weight-average mol wt = 30,000) as drug carrier was investigated to selectively release the drug in the large intestine. Prodrug and drug solutions (1.18 mg DX/ml DMSO) were administered to two groups of male Sprague-Dawley rats by intragastric infusion using an ALZET osmotic pump. All rats were infused for sufficient time to achieve steady state in both blood and GI-tract tissues. DX concentrations in blood and tissue samples were measured with HPLC. The steady state DX concentrations at these sites were used to calculate a drug delivery index (DDI). DX blood concentrations were significantly lower (p < 0.05) after intragastric administration of the prodrug. Moreover, prodrug administration resulted in significantly higher DX concentrations in the cecum and colon mucosa and the cecum muscle tissue compared to DX administration (p < 0.05). The prodrug led to an increase of the DX concentration in the large intestinal tissues by factors of 1.3-2.0 and to an 1.3-fold decrease of DX blood concentrations. Thus, this novel conjugate should both increase efficacy and reduce toxicity to some extent.
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Affiliation(s)
- C S Leopold
- Controlled Release and Biomedical Polymers Department, SRI International, Menlo Park, California, USA
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Colonic mucosa-specific “pro-antedrugs” for oral treatment of ulcerative colitis: design, synthesis and fate of methyl 20-glucopyranosyloxyprednisolonates. J Control Release 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/0168-3659(94)90259-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Kopečková P, Rathi R, Takada S, Říhová B, Berenson M, Kopeček J. Bioadhesive N-(2-hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide copolymers for colon-specific drug delivery. J Control Release 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/0168-3659(94)90168-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Nakamura J, Kido M, Nishida K, Sasaki H. Hydrolysis of salicylic acid-tyrosine and salicylic acid-methionine prodrugs in the rabbit. Int J Pharm 1992. [DOI: 10.1016/0378-5173(92)90227-s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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