Physiological fitness measures and sensory and motor performance in aging

Effects of rehabilitation with complete dentures on bite force and electromyography of jaw and neck muscles and the correlation with occlusal vertical dimension

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of oral rehabilitation with complete dentures on bite force and electromyography of the suprahyoid and sternocleidomastoid muscles, and their correlation with occlusal vertical dimension (OVD). The research questions were "What are the effects of rehabilitation with complete dentures on bite force and electromyography of suprahyoid and sternocleidomastoid muscles, and how are they correlated with OVD?"

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Patients who are wearers of unsatisfactory removable complete dentures were attended in three sessions (T0, T1, and T2). At T0, while the patients still wore the old dentures, they were submitted to bite force and surface electromyographic exams of the suprahyoid and sternocleidomastoid muscles. These exams were repeated, and the OVD was measured while the patients wore their old and new prostheses, 30 days after insertion of the new prosthesis (T1). The exams were repeated 100 days after the insertion of the new prosthesis (T2). The data were submitted to the Shapiro-Wilk normality test, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and Pearson correlation and linear regression, all with 5% significance.

RESULTS

Fifteen patients participated in the study. No statistically significant difference was observed for bite force or electromyography in T0, T1, or T2. However, the correlation and regression tests showed important interactions between the OVD and maximum voluntary occlusal bite force, as well as the OVD and electromyography during deglutition for the suprahyoid muscles.

CONCLUSION

Rehabilitation did not impact bite force nor the activity of the assessed muscles (electromyography). On the other hand, OVD was shown to be an important factor for bite force, and deglutition of water after rehabilitation.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

This study shows what are the influences of rehabilitation on oral functions and reinforces the importance of corrected reestablishment of OVD because it has been found to be an important factor for bite force and electromyography during deglutition.

Developing an assessment based on physical fitness age to evaluate motor function in frail and healthy elderly women

Objectives

The purpose of this study was to identify a method for assessing physical fitness age that is easy to use with both frail and healthy elderly women and to examine its validity.

Methods

Principal component analysis was used to develop a formula of physical fitness age from four motor function variables. The subjects comprised 688 (75.7±6.0 years) elderly women, in order to develop a physical fitness scale. The formula for calculating physical fitness age was expressed as physical fitness age =-0.419× grip strength -0.096× balancing on one leg with eyes open -0.737×30 s chair stand +0.503× figure-of-8 walking test +0.47× chronological age +52.68.

Results

Measures obtained from subjects in the frail elderly (n=11, 73.0±2.3 years) and exercise (n=10, 70.8±3.1 years) groups were used to examine the validity of the assessment. The mean physical fitness age of the frail elderly group (79.0±3.7 years) was significantly higher than its mean chronological age (73.0±2.3 years, p<0.05). The mean physical fitness age of the exercise group (65.6±3.1 years) was significantly lower than the chronological age (70.8±3.1 years, p<0.05).

Conclusion

These findings confirm that physical fitness age scores are applicable to frail and healthy elderly women. Physical fitness age is a valid measure of motor function in elderly women.

Common methods of biological age estimation

At present, no single indicator could be used as a golden index to estimate aging process. The biological age (BA), which combines several important biomarkers with mathematical modeling, has been proposed for >50 years as an aging estimation method to replace chronological age (CA). The common methods used for BA estimation include the multiple linear regression (MLR), the principal component analysis (PCA), the Hochschild's method, and the Klemera and Doubal's method (KDM). The fundamental differences in these four methods are the roles of CA and the selection criteria of aging biomarkers. In MLR and PCA, CA is treated as the selection criterion and an independent index. The Hochschild's method and KDM share a similar concept, making CA an independent variable. Previous studies have either simply constructed the BA model by one or compared the four methods together. However, reviews have yet to illustrate and compare the four methods systematically. Since the BA model is a potential estimation of aging for clinical use, such as predicting onset and prognosis of diseases, improving the elderly's living qualities, and realizing successful aging, here we summarize previous BA studies, illustrate the basic statistical steps, and thoroughly discuss the comparisons among the four common BA estimation methods.

Factors Affecting Reaction-Time Testing and the Interpretation of Results

The aim of this study was to identify factors that might affect reaction-time (RT) testing and interpretation. Simple reaction time and choice reaction time were measured in a cohort of 893 white young men. Age, body size, color vision, and intelligence (IQ) were analyzed as subject-related factors. Effects of time of day of test and different examiners were analyzed in relation to testing facilities. All factors were statistically correlated to RTs; however, the relationships between age and RTs and between height and RTs were noticeably weak and apparently insignificant in practice. A defect in color vision was notably associated with slow choice RT and with mistakes on the test. As the choice was coded by color in the choice RT test, the result was expected. Low IQs were significantly related with slow RTs. Slow RTs have been correlated with low-grade IQs in previous studies also. Lower grades and greater variation in RTs were recorded just before meals or if testing was done outside the daily testing schedule. The examiner supervising the RT testing significantly affected the results. It was concluded that the introduction for tests should be given impersonally using a tape recorder or comparable equipment.

Age, human performance, and physical employment standards

The proportion of older workers has increased substantially in recent years, with over 25% of the Canadian labour force aged ≥55 years. Along with chronological age comes age-related declines in functional capacity associated with impairments to the cardiorespiratory and muscular systems. As a result, older workers are reported to exhibit reductions in work output and in the ability to perform and/or sustain the required effort when performing work tasks. However, research has presented some conflicting views on the consequences of aging in the workforce, as physically demanding occupations can be associated with improved or maintained physical function. Furthermore, the current methods for evaluating physical function in older workers often lack specificity and relevance to the actual work tasks, leading to an underestimation of physical capacity in the older worker. Nevertheless, industry often lacks the appropriate information and/or tools to accommodate the aging workforce, particularly in the context of physical employment standards. Ultimately, if appropriate workplace strategies and work performance standards are adopted to optimize the strengths and protect against the vulnerability of the aging workers, they can perform as effectively as their younger counterparts. Our aim in this review is to evaluate the impact of different individual (including physiological decline, chronic disease, lifestyle, and physical activity) and occupational (including shift work, sleep deprivation, and cold/heat exposure) factors on the physical decline of older workers, and therefore the risk of work-related injuries or illness.

Do body mass index and fat volume influence vocal quality, phonatory range, and aerodynamics in females?

PURPOSE

To analyze the impact of body weight and body fat volume on selected parameters of vocal quality, phonatory range, and aerodynamics in females.

METHODS

Based on measurements of body mass index in combination with body fat volume, 29 normophonic female subjects were classified as normal weight, underweight, and obese. Voice quality was investigated via auditory-perceptual ratings of breathiness, roughness, and overall dysphonia severity, via various acoustic measures and a multiparametric index. Phonatory range performance was examined using selected measures of the voice range profile and speech range profile. Measures of vocally relevant aerodynamics included vital capacity (i.e., VC), expected VC, phonation quotient, and maximum phonation time (i.e., MPT).

RESULTS

Significant differences between the three weight groups were found across several measures of intensity, VC, MPT, and shimmer. As compared to the other groups, significantly higher values of maximum and minimum intensity levels, as well as sound pressure level during habitual running speech were observed for the obese group (all p-values<0.05); whereas, the underweight group had significantly lower values for VC and ratio of expected to measured VC (p-values<0.01). Furthermore, underweight subjects differed significantly as compared to normal weight subjects with lower MPT (p=0.025) and higher lowest-F0 (p=0.035). Finally the obese group showed significantly lower shimmer values than the normal weight subjects (p<0.05).

CONCLUSION

Body weight and body fat volume appear to influence select objective measures of voice quality, vocal aerodynamics, and phonatory range performance.

An empirical comparative study on biological age estimation algorithms with an application of Work Ability Index (WAI)

In this study, we described the characteristics of five different biological age (BA) estimation algorithms, including (i) multiple linear regression, (ii) principal component analysis, and somewhat unique methods developed by (iii) Hochschild, (iv) Klemera and Doubal, and (v) a variant of Klemera and Doubal's method. The objective of this study is to find the most appropriate method of BA estimation by examining the association between Work Ability Index (WAI) and the differences of each algorithm's estimates from chronological age (CA). The WAI was found to be a measure that reflects an individual's current health status rather than the deterioration caused by a serious dependency with the age. Experiments were conducted on 200 Korean male participants using a BA estimation system developed principally under the concept of non-invasive, simple to operate and human function-based. Using the empirical data, BA estimation as well as various analyses including correlation analysis and discriminant function analysis was performed. As a result, it had been confirmed by the empirical data that Klemera and Doubal's method with uncorrelated variables from principal component analysis produces relatively reliable and acceptable BA estimates.

Evaluating the interdependence of aging-related changes in visual and auditory acuity, balance, and cognitive functioning

High proportions of shared age-related variance are found among measures of perceptual acuity, balance, muscle strength, and cognitive capabilities in age-heterogeneous, cross-sectional studies. Reliance on cross-sectional studies is problematic, however, because associations may arise from age-related mean trends. Narrow age-cohort samples provide an alternative basis for testing hypotheses regarding associations among rates of change. Cross-domain associations were evaluated in combined 75-year-old cohort samples from Denmark, Finland, and Sweden. In general, no consistent associations were found across sensory, balance, strength, and cognitive domains. These findings indicate that the effects of aging on sensory acuity, balance, and cognitive functioning are likely to be largely independent, multidimensional, and complex at the level of the individual.

Physiologic, psychologic, and health predictors of 6-minute walk performance in older people

OBJECTIVE

To determine the extent to which physiologic, psychologic, and health-related factors predict 6-minute walk distance (6MWD) in older people.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Retirement villages.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 515 people between the ages of 62 and 95 years (mean +/- standard deviation, 79.5+/-6.4y) residing in retirement villages in Australia.

INTERVENTIONS

Not applicable.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Quantitative tests of vision, strength, peripheral sensation, reaction time, and balance and short Mini-Mental State Examination, Geriatric Depression Scale, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), Medical Outcomes Study 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36), and 6MWD.

RESULTS

All physiologic, psychologic, and health scores were significantly associated with 6MWD. Multiple regression analysis revealed that 10 factors (visual contrast sensitivity, lower-limb strength, simple reaction time, postural sway, maximal balance range, PANAS positive scale score, SF-36 pain score, number of medications used, SF-36 general health subscale score, age) were significant and independent predictors of 6MWD performance. Of these measures, strength, maximal balance range, medication use, and age explained the largest proportions of the variance in 6MWD. The final regression model explained over half (52.5%) of the variance in 6MWD (multiple r=.72).

CONCLUSIONS

In older people, 6MWD depends on multiple physiologic, psychologic, and health factors. Thus, 6MWD appears to provide a measure of overall mobility and physical functioning in this population group rather than a specific measure of cardiovascular fitness.

College-age males' ability to produce the acoustic properties of an aging voice

The purpose of this study was to examine college-age males' ability to produce the acoustic properties of the normally aging voice when reading. The 17 subjects (M age=21.13 yr., SD=1.0) selected for this study were undergraduates who were placed into a single group. The procedure involved recording the subjects while reading The Rainbow Passage aloud. The first reading was in the subject's natural speaking voice. During the second reading, the reader imitated the voice of a normally aging 70-yr.-old man. Fundamental frequency and temporal measures were analyzed for each voice sample. Mean scores for each measure were compared for the natural speaking-voice production and the production when imitating the voice of a normally aging 70-yr.-old man. Analysis showed that temporal measures appear to have the most significant influence on subjects' production when imitating the normally aging voice as seen in the overall increase in all temporal measures.

Proposta de um instrumento para avaliação da autonomia do idoso: o Sistema Sênior de Avaliação da Autonomia de Ação (SysSen)

O texto descreve uma nova técnica de avaliação da autonomia do idoso, o Sistema Sênior de Avaliação da Autonomia de Ação(SysSen), bem como as estratégias adotadas para sua validação. O sistema é formado por um questionário de atividades físicas (Questionário Sênior de Atividades Físicas - QSAP) e de um teste de campo (Teste Sênior de 'Caminhar e Transportar' - TSMP). O QSAP visa quantificar as necessidades dos idosos para uma vida autônoma, em termos de força de membros superiores (FO) e de capacidade cardiorrespiratória (PA), através de uma entrevista em quatro partes. A primeira considera as atividades cotidianas no domicílio, profissionais e de tempo livre. A segunda avalia o contexto ambiental. A terceira aprecia as dificuldades para tarefas cotidianas e os sentimentos quanto às atividades que se gostaria de fazer e/ou retomar. A quarta considera o ponto de vista do entrevistador sobre as informações recolhidas. Obtém-se um índice para o conjunto das necessidades reveladas pelas partes do questionário (Índice de Autonomia Exprimida - IAE). No TSMP o indivíduo marcha 800m de forma acelerada, transportando pesos específicos segundo o sexo. Calcula-se um índice representativo do potencial de realização das tarefas que dependem da interação funcional da FO e PA (Índice de Autonomia Potencial - IAP). Cruzando as informações obtidas, estabelece-se uma razão autonomia potencial/exprimida (IAP/IAE) - Índice Sênior da Autonomia de Ação (ISAC). A pertinência do SysSen foi verificada por meio da comparação com outros instrumentos de avaliação e pela observação da coerência interna e estrutural dos índices obtidos (validade de estrutura, conteúdo e critério). A fidedignidade inter e intraclasse foi investigada através de teste-reteste. A estabilidade das equações de regressão dos índices IAE e IAP foi testada por validação cruzada. Os resultados indicam que os instrumentos que compõem o SysSen são válidos e suas equações, estáveis. A comparação com outras técnicas de avaliação revela que o SysSen pode ser útil no estudo da autonomia funcional sob uma perspectiva positiva, fato raro quando se trata de instrumentos de avaliação gerontológica.

Task complexity effect on vocal reaction time in aged speakers

The aged population is at risk for impaired speech communication due to the increased likelihood of deterioration of central nervous system (CNS) processes that underlie cognition, language, and/or speech motor control. Vocal reaction time (RT) may provide a means of quantifying the efficiency of CNS processes that underlie speech production. The present study used a simple RT paradigm to investigate effects of the complexity of the required task on vocal RT in normal young and aged speakers. Task complexity was represented by two levels: a single word and a short sentence. Only the aged subjects showed a significant task complexity effect on vocal RT. Furthermore, the between-group RT difference increased as a function of task complexity. Specific causes for the increase in vocal RT for the aged subjects are presently unknown, but likely reside in altered respiratory biomechanics and reduced efficiency of CNS motor processing.

Psychomotor speed in chronic low-back pain patients and healthy controls: construct validity and clinical significance of the measure

The effect of ethanol on reaction times was studied in 5 healthy men to test the construct validity of the measure. Reaction times were studied among 61 healthy controls and 99 patients with chronic low-back pain (68 moderate and 31 severe) to evaluate the diagnostic value of reaction time measurements. Analysis of receiver operating characteristics was used to calculate the discriminative power of the reaction time measurements. The severity of low-back pain was associated with slow reaction times but the diagnostic value of a single reaction time measurement was low due to insufficient sensitivity. In conclusion, even though many patients with low-back pain suffer from central impairment of motor function, a single reaction time measurement is not usable in evaluation of the severity of low-back pain.

Descrição e construção do questionário senior de atividades físicas para idosos (QSAP)

A avaliação da autonomia do idoso focaliza-se habitualmente nas atividades desempenhadas ou na aptitude funcional. Raros são os instrumentos que levam em conta ambos os aspectos. Este estudo descreve o desenvolvimento de uma das partes de um sistema de avaliação que tenta cobrir esta lacuna _ o Questionário Senior de Atividades Físicas (QSAP). Trata-se de uma entrevista em quatro partes, quantificando as necessidades para uma vida autônoma em termos de força (FO) e de produção de energia para o trabalho (PA). A Parte I considera as atividades cotidianas no domicílio, profissionais e de tempo livre. A Parte II avalia o contexto de vida do entrevistado. A Parte III aprecia as dificuldades para tarefas cotidianas e os sentimentos quanto às atividades que se gostaria de fazer. A Parte IV considera o ponto de vista do entrevistador. Obtêm-se para cada parte dois índices parciais _ TOT (FO) e TOT (PA). Os índices gerais são três: ITOT (FO), ITOT (PA) e IAE. Aplicaram-se 164 questionários a belgas de 60 a 90 anos (X = 69,9 ± 7,12). Determinou-se o IAE por: a) análise de componentes principais para os índices TOT; b) cálculo dos escores fatoriais referentes ao primeiro fator; c) regressão múltipla entre os escores fatoriais e os ITOT; d) transformação dos resultados da regressão em unidades correspondentes à idade cronológica. Testaram-se a representatividade e a estabilidade do IAE por: a) comparação aos resultados parciais do questionário; b) comparação com a idade cronológica; c) validação cruzada para 20 indivíduos (X = 67,40 ± 5,39 anos). Resultados: a) o IAE representa bem o conjunto das questões do QSAP; b) as necessidades para uma vida autônoma, traduzidas pelo IAE, guardam correlação inversa moderada com a idade; c) a equação de regressão parece ser estável. Conclui-se que o QSAP como um todo _ e o IAE especificamente _ têm boa validade de conteúdo. Recomenda-se, contudo, a verificação posterior da pertinência e da reprodutibilidade do método, antes da generalização de sua aplicação.

Significance of health fitness appraisal in an aging society

There is no doubt that the older population in Japan is rapidly increasing. The over-65 age group is the fastest growing age group in Japanese society. The quality of life for this rapidly growing segment of the population can no longer be ignored without disastrous consequences. The advent of an increased life expectancy has focused attention on the issue of functionality versus disability. We are all faced with the inevitable consequences of aging, yet each of us has the capacity to modify the aging process physiologically through appropriate physical activity and other preventive health measures. Therefore, with the aid of a physically healthy lifestyle, an exercise participant can be physically capable, energetic, and live actively beyond the ages of 50, 60, or even 70 years. Consequently, a key issue for successful or healthy aging would appear to be the improvement in perception of physical ability through education, as well as improvement in health-related physical fitness through a change in lifestyle involving regular exercise. In addition, it is a major responsibility of the physical education profession and related health fields to clarify and publicize the benefits, risks, and specific parameters of physical activity, and to develop an effective prescription for physical activity in programs that are age adjusted. This review discusses from this perspective the significance of health fitness appraisal in the aged society. Much more research is needed to clarify these issues in Japanese society.

Physical Activity and Measures of Cognitive Function in Healthy Older Adults: The MacArthur Study of Successful Aging

To investigate the association between physical activity and cognitive ability, cross-sectional data from a representative cohort of 1,189 adults (70–79 years old) participating in the MacArthur Study of Successful Aging were examined. The frequency of current house/yardwork and recreational activities was assessed using five categories of responses. A total physical activity score was derived, and cognitive ability was assessed. The total physical activity score showed a modest yet significant bivariate correlation with the total cognitive ability score. In the multivariate analysis, physical activity showed a significant association with the total cognitive ability score, independent of gender, self-rated health, average peak expiratory flow rate, body mass index, number of current social relationships, and visual contacts in the past month. When education was added to the model, however, the effect of physical activity was substantially diminished. Higher levels of physical activity appear to be associated with some cognitive benefits among a population of healthy older adults, although this association is influenced strongly by their joint association with education.

Relationship between Self-Reported and Physiological Indicators of Exercise Behavior in Older Women

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between self-reported exercise behavior and physiological indicators of exercise behavior (body composition and oxygen consumption measures) in older women. Three self-report exercise behavior instruments were administered in counterbalanced order. Body mass index and sums of skinfold thicknesses were used as measures of body composition. Oxygen consumption was measured using a metabolic cart during a treadmill test while women walked at approximately 70% of their heart rate reserve. Fifty-nine women participated (68.7 ± 6.0 years). Results showed that self-reported exercise behavior was moderately related to body composition measures. However, predicted maximal oxygen consumption was only weakly related to self-reported exercise behavior.

Measuring human functional age: a review of empirical findings

A review of empirical functional age studies published in English was conducted. Types of biomarkers used in functional age studies included sensorimotor, cognitive, psychosocial, behavioral, anthropometric, biomedical, physiological, and dental variables. Previous criticisms of the validity and utility of functional age research were evaluated with reference to empirical studies. While some of these criticisms remain valid, areas of research currently using established biomarkers to predict functional outcomes were identified, including driving, falls, and cognitive functioning. It was concluded that the success of functional age research is dependent on the relevance of biomarkers to specific functional outcomes.

The relative utility of health-related fitness tests and skilled motor performance tests as measures of biological age in Japanese men

In the present paper we report the results of a study in which we compared 2 different approaches to the computation of biological age (BA) in a sample of 322 Japanese men (age range 20 to 79 years). In the first approach, 4 commonly used measures of health-related fitness (VO2peak, trunk flexion from a standing position, body fat, and grip strength) were reduced to a single BA score (HRF Age) using principal component analysis. In contrast, in the second approach, 3 commonly used measures of skilled motor performance and agility (vertical jump, stepping side-to-side, and balancing on one leg with eyes closed) were reduced to a single BA score (SMP Age) using similar multivariate procedures. The criterion-related validity of both of the BA measures was examined by assessing each measure's ability to discriminate between healthy and active groups of subjects. This was achieved by classifying the original subject pool into regularly active (ACT; n = 108) and healthy (HLTH; n = 169) subgroups on the basis of self-reported activity levels. Analyses revealed that HRF Age was a more powerful discriminator between the two activity groups than SMP Age. While HRF Age of HLTH subjects was very close to their chronological age (CA), in the ACT group, HRF Age was on average 15 years less than their CA (P < 0.05). In a separate analysis, we assessed the HRF Age of patients with ischemic heart disease, hypertension, obesity, or diabetes (PAT; n = 45). The HRF Age of these subjects averaged 10 years above their CA. Our data suggest that commonly used measures of health-related fitness can be usefully employed as indices of BA which differentiate between individuals of similar ages but differing health and physical activity status. In contrast, measures of skilled motor performance were found to be less valuable measures of BA. The implication of our findings for future experimental design in exercise and aging research is discussed.

Physical Characteristics, Physical Fitness, and Lifestyles of Senior Olympic Athletes and Independently Living Cohorts

The primary purpose of this paper, one of the first physiological studies of Senior Olympic athletes, was to determine the physical fitness level of Senior Olympic participants 50 to 86 years of age. It was hypothesized that Senior Olympic athletes would be more physically fit than healthy older adults not classified as Senior Olympic athletes. The athletes’ screening questionnaire (PAR-Q) results showed a 43% positive rate, making maximal testing and underwater testing impractical and possibly unsafe. However, all subjects were allowed to perform the AAHPERD functional fitness test battery. Senior Olympic athletes did not perform better (p < .05) on any of the AAHPERD functional fitness tests than a group of nonathletes who lived independently. Furthermore, questionnaire results suggested that some athletes were competing with little or no training. These results indicated that researchers and events managers should not assume that all Senior Olympic athletes are exceptionally healthy or physically fit.

The Assessment of Functional Age Using “Activities of Daily Living” Performance Tests: A Study of Korean Women

The purpose of this study was to assess the extent to which a battery of 24 activities of daily living (ADL) performance tasks could be used to determine functional age in a sample of older women. The subjects were 253 older adult Korean women, aged 60 to 91 years. All subjects completed a comprehensive battery of 24 performance tests related to common activities of daily living. Correlations between the measures were computed, and principal component analysis was applied to the 24 × 24 correlation matrix. A principal component score was computed for each subject and was found to decrease significantly with advancing age. Multiple regression analysis revealed that out of the initial 24 variables, 5 variables accounted for 81% of the variability. An equation was developed to determine ADL age; the equation was considered useful for the assessment of daily living activities of older adult Korean women.

Experimental Design and Research Methodology in Aging: Implications for Research and Clinical Practice

This paper presents a brief overview of some of the major issues associated with research design in experimental gerontology. The intention is not to provide a comprehensive and detailed guide to experimental design and research methods. Rather, the paper focuses on a more general discussion of several issues associated with the design, implementation, and interpretation of research in an attempt to illustrate why a rudimentary knowledge of these topics is essential for all researchers and practitioners involved in the study of the aging process. Wherever possible, specific examples from the exercise science and applied health literature are selected in order to illustrate the significance of these factors for our field of expertise.

Physical Activity, Age, and Cognitive-Neuropsychological Function

Findings from three research paradigms that employed aerobic exercise as an independent variable were used to test the hypothesis that aerobic exercise improves cognitive-neuropsychological functioning. The research paradigms were animal intervention studies, cross-sectional human studies, and human intervention studies. Results from studies of animals, usually rodents, provide consistent evidence that aerobic fitness is associated with improved neurobiological and behavioral functioning. Cross-sectional studies with humans indicate a strong positive association between physical activity level and cognitive-neuropsychological performance. However, results from these studies must be interpreted cautiously, as individuals who elect to exercise or not exercise may differ on other variables that could influence cognitive-neuropsychological performance. To date, human intervention studies have not consistently demonstrated cognitive-neuropsychological improvements following exercise training. To satisfactorily test the exercise/cognition hypothesis with humans, carefully controlled intervention studies that last longer than those previously employed are needed.

The Functional Fitness Assessment Battery: Reliability and Validity Data for Elderly Women

A battery of field tests was recently developed to assess five fitness parameters in elderly persons. The present study examined the test-retest reliability of each item in the battery and tested the validity of the cardiorespiratory endurance item. Reliability and validity data were obtained from two convenience samples. The 29 subjects in the reliability study were community-living women enrolled in seniors’ exercise classes. The validity of the cardiorespiratory endurance item was tested by comparing it with maximal work capacity on a treadmill test. The 52 women in that part of the study were all participants in a study to assess the effect of weight-bearing exercises on women with low bone mass. Both samples were combined for a principal component analysis. Low reproducibility was observed for coordination (0.54) and strength/endurance (0.56). After slightly modifying the test protocol for these two items, reproducibility reached 84 and 94%, respectively. The correlation between the cardiorespiratory endurance score and maximal work capacity was −0.65, while that between the composite score and maximal work capacity was −0.64. Given these minor modifications, then, the Functional Fitness Assessment battery is a reliable and valid tool for assessing functional fitness in elderly women.

The influence of physical fitness on automatic and effortful memory changes in aging

A cross-sectional study was carried out in order to determine the influence of cardiovascular fitness on age-related declines in cognitive performance. Forty-eight volunteers were divided into Young (n = 13, 18-27 years), Middle-Aged (n = 22, 60-65 years) and Old (n = 13, 65-88 years) groups and tested on a battery of cardiovascular, pulmonary, hemodynamic, and biochemical tests in order to assess physical fitness. Cognitive performance was evaluated by a variety of memory tasks distributed along an automatic-to-effortful processing continuum. Memory for location and frequency of occurrence were selected as representative of automatic processing, whereas, an auditory free-recall task was selected as representative of effortful processing. Age-related performance declines were observed for the free-recall task, but no such age-dependent association was observed for frequency and location memory. With regard to the influence of physical fitness; the Middle-Aged and Older participants were divided into High and Low Fitness groups and significant differences were observed between these groups for the effortful but not the automatic memory tasks. These data suggest that the relationship between physical fitness and cognitive performance in old age is task dependent. Furthermore, the apparent prophylactic effects of physical fitness on effortful memory, do not appear to extend to cognitive tasks requiring less effortful processing.

The effect of moderate aerobic exercise on physical fitness among women 70 years and older

This study investigated benefits of 26 weeks of moderate aerobic exercise for women 70 years or older. Sixteen healthy women with a mean age of 72.0 years were randomized into exercise (n = 10) and control groups (n = 6). The exercise group walked on a treadmill 3 times per week for 20 min, at 70% of maximum heart rate. Oxygen uptake VO2max expressed in l/min and ml.kg-1.min-1, total exercise time on the treadmill (TET), maximum heart rate (HRmax) and body mass index (BMI) were measured at baseline and 6 months. Two-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) determined the effect of exercise intervention. Both measures of VO2max in addition to TET were significantly improved by the moderate training program, compared to the control group. VO2max in the exercise group increased by +/- 6.6% (S.E. 2.9) measured in l/min and 8.4% (S.E. 3.2) measured in ml.kg-1.min-1. TET increased by 25.4% (S.E. 4.9) in the exercise group. The ANOVA was unable to detect significance between the exercise and control groups for HRmax or BMI. All exercising subjects finished the program, apparently tolerating the intervention. The results indicate that healthy women over the age of 70 years can increase fitness measures with a moderate training program.

Reaction time unchanged in older women following aerobic training

The effect of aerobic exercise on reaction time in older women was investigated. 14 women (M age = 65 yr.) were carefully screened for health status and lifestyle, then assigned to a random order of the exercise and control groups (ns = 7). Pre- and posttraining tests of aerobic capacity, simple reaction time, and choice reaction time were administered. The exercise group rode a stationary bicycle ergometer for 8 consecutive weeks for 3 35- to 40-min. sessions per week. There were no significant pretraining differences between groups on simple reaction time, choice reaction time, or estimated VO2max. No posttraining differences for simple and choice reaction time were found even though the exercise group had a significantly higher VO2max than the controls. Contrary to some other findings, the data indicate that reaction time may be independent of aerobic training in healthy older women.

Improving the precision of biological age determinations. Part 1: A new approach to calculating biological age

In calculating biological age, almost all prior studies used multiple regression of chronological age on scores of biomarkers of aging. Multiple regression is invalid for this purpose for three, and in some circumstances four, reasons. These are: a) weighting of the contribution of each biomarker's scores according to strength of association with chronological age; b) regression of calculated ages to sample mean age and the inadequacy of proposed corrections; c) frequent occurrence of regression coefficients whose sign equates poorer adult performance on a test to younger biological ages; and d) multicollinearity when lung function scores and height are on the same side of the regression equation. An alternative method for calculating biological age is outlined. Regression to sample mean age and its solution are illustrated on data for highest audible pitch, one of 12 biomarkers measured in a study of 2462 office workers. Prior published studies employing multiple regression to calculate biological age appear to have been in error.