Regulation of Innate and Adaptive Immunity by TGFβ

Knock down of transforming growth factor beta improves expressions of co-stimulatory molecules, type I interferon-regulated genes, and pro-inflammatory cytokine in PRRSV-inoculated monocyte-derived macrophages

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) induces a poor innate immune response following infection. This study evaluates the effects of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFβ1) up-regulated by PRRSV on gene expressions of co-stimulatory molecules, type I interferon (IFN), type I IFN-regulated genes (IRGs), pattern recognition receptors, and pro-inflammatory cytokines in PRRSV-inoculated monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs). Phosphorothioate-modified antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (AS ODNs) specific to various regions of porcine TGFβ1 mRNA were synthesized, and those specific to the AUG region efficiently knockdown TGFβ1 mRNA expression and protein translation. Transfection of TGFβAS ODNs in MDMs inoculated with either classical PRRSV-2 (cPRRSV-2) or highly pathogenic PRRSV-2 (HP-PRRSV-2) significantly reduced TGFβ1 mRNA expression and significantly increased mRNA expressions of CD80, CD86, IFNβ, IRGs (i.e. IFN regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), IRF7, myxovirus resistance 1, osteopontin, and stimulator of IFN genes), Toll-like receptor 3, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Transfection of TGFβAS ODNs in MDMs inoculated with HP-PRRSV-2 also significantly increased mRNA expressions of IFNα, IFNγ, and 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthetase 1. The quantity of PRRSV-2 RNA copy numbers was significantly reduced in MDMs transfected with TGFβAS ODNs as compared to untransfected MDMs. Recombinant porcine TGFβ1 (rTGFβ1) and recombinant porcine IFNα (rIFNα) sustained and reduced the yields of PRRSV-2 RNA copy numbers in PRRSV-2 inoculated MDMs, respectively. These findings demonstrate a strategy of PRRSV for innate immune suppression via an induction of TGFβ expression. These findings also suggest TGFβ as a potential parameter that future PRRSV vaccine and vaccine adjuvant candidates should take into consideration.

Unmasking the NLRP3 inflammasome in dendritic cells as a potential therapeutic target for autoimmunity, cancer, and infectious conditions

Proper and functional immune response requires a complex interaction between innate and adaptive immune cells, which dendritic cells (DCs) are the primary actors in this coordination as professional antigen-presenting cells. DCs are armed with numerous pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) such as nucleotide-binding and oligomerization domain-like receptors (NLRs) like NLRP3, which influence the development of their activation state upon sensation of ligands. NLRP3 is a crucial component of the immune system for protection against tumors and infectious agents, because its activation leads to the assembly of inflammasomes that cause the formation of active caspase-1 and stimulate the maturation and release of proinflammatory cytokines. But, when NLRP3 becomes overactivated, it plays a pathogenic role in the progression of several autoimmune disorders. So, NLRP3 activation is strictly regulated by diverse signaling pathways that are mentioned in detail in this review. Furthermore, the role of NLRP3 in all of the diverse immune cells' subsets is briefly mentioned in this study because NLRP3 plays a pivotal role in modulating other immune cells which are accompanied by DCs' responses and subsequently influence differentiation of T cells to diverse T helper subsets and even impact on cytotoxic CD8+ T cells' responses. This review sheds light on the functional and therapeutic role of NLRP3 in DCs and its contribution to the occurrence and progression of autoimmune disorders, prevention of diverse tumors' development, and recognition and annihilation of various infectious agents. Furthermore, we highlight NLRP3 targeting potential for improving DC-based immunotherapeutic approaches, to be used for the benefit of patients suffering from these disorders.

Macrophages: plastic participants in the diagnosis and treatment of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) rank among the most prevalent types of head and neck cancer globally. Unfortunately, a significant number of patients receive their diagnoses at advanced stages, limiting the effectiveness of available treatments. The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a pivotal player in HNSCC development, with macrophages holding a central role. Macrophages demonstrate diverse functions within the TME, both inhibiting and facilitating cancer progression. M1 macrophages are characterized by their phagocytic and immune activities, while M2 macrophages tend to promote inflammation and immunosuppression. Striking a balance between these different polarization states is essential for maintaining overall health, yet in the context of tumors, M2 macrophages typically prevail. Recent efforts have been directed at controlling the polarization states of macrophages, paving the way for novel approaches to cancer treatment. Various drugs and immunotherapies, including innovative treatments based on macrophages like engineering macrophages and CAR-M cell therapy, have been developed. This article provides an overview of the roles played by macrophages in HNSCC, explores potential therapeutic targets and strategies, and presents fresh perspectives on the future of HNSCC treatment.

Type I and II interferons, transcription factors and major histocompatibility complexes were enhanced by knocking down the PRRSV-induced transforming growth factor beta in monocytes co-cultured with peripheral blood lymphocytes

The innate and adaptive immune responses elicited by porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) infection are known to be poor. This study investigates the impact of PRRSV-induced transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFβ1) on the expressions of type I and II interferons (IFNs), transcription factors, major histocompatibility complexes (MHC), anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory cytokines in PRRSV-infected co-cultures of monocytes and peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL). Phosphorothioate-modified antisense oligodeoxynucleotide (AS ODN) specific to the AUG region of porcine TGFβ1 mRNA was synthesized and successfully knocked down TGFβ1 mRNA expression and protein translation. Monocytes transfected with TGFβAS1 ODN, then simultaneously co-cultured with PBL and inoculated with either classical PRRSV-2 (cPRRSV-2) or highly pathogenic PRRSV-2 (HP-PRRSV-2) showed a significant reduction in TGFβ1 mRNA expression and a significant increase in the mRNA expressions of IFNα, IFNγ, MHC-I, MHC-II, signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1), and STAT2. Additionally, transfection of TGFβAS1 ODN in the monocyte and PBL co-culture inoculated with cPRRSV-2 significantly increased the mRNA expression of interleukin-12p40 (IL-12p40). PRRSV-2 RNA copy numbers were significantly reduced in monocytes and PBL co-culture transfected with TGFβAS1 ODN compared to the untransfected control. The yields of PRRSV-2 RNA copy numbers in PRRSV-2-inoculated monocytes and PBL co-culture were sustained and reduced by porcine TGFβ1 (rTGFβ1) and recombinant porcine IFNα (rIFNα), respectively. These findings highlight the strategy employed by PRRSV to suppress the innate immune response through the induction of TGFβ expression. The inclusion of TGFβ as a parameter for future PRRSV vaccine and vaccine adjuvant candidates is recommended.

Immune Factors, Immune Cells and Inflammatory Diseases

The immune system comprises distinct innate and adaptive arms, each of which contains many layers to provide a coordinated, sequential immune response to insults [...].

Structural and functional analysis of transforming growth factor beta regulator 1 (TBRG1) in the red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii: The initial insight into TBRG1's role in invertebrate immunity

The transforming growth factor beta regulator 1 (TBRG1) is a growth inhibitory protein that acts as a tumor suppressor in human cancers, gaining its name for the transcriptional regulation by TGF-β. While extensive research has been conducted on the tumor-related function of TBRG1 in mammals, its significance in invertebrates remains largely unexplored. In this study, a homolog of TBRG1 was first structurally and functionally analyzed in the red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii. The full-length cDNA sequence was 2143 base pairs (bp) with a 1305 bp open reading frame (ORF) encoding a deduced protein of 434 amino acids (aa). The changes of PcTBRG1 transcripts upon immune challenges indicated its involvement in innate immunity. After knocking down PcTBRG1, the decline of bacteria clearance capacity revealed the participation of PcTBRG1 in the immune response. Furthermore, the downregulation of AMPs' expression after the cotreatment of RNAi and bacteria challenge suggested that PcTBRG1 might participate in innate immunity through regulating AMPs' expression. These results provided initial insight into the immune-related function of TBRG1 in invertebrates.

TGM6, a helminth secretory product, mimics TGF-β binding to TβRII to antagonize TGF-β signaling in fibroblasts

The murine helminth parasite Heligmosomoides polygyrus expresses a family of proteins structurally related to TGF-β Mimic 1 (TGM1), a secreted five domain protein that activates the TGF-β pathway and converts naïve T lymphocytes to immunosuppressive Tregs. TGM1 signals through the TGF-β type I and type II receptors, TβRI and TβRII, with domains 1-2 and 3 binding TβRI and TβRII, respectively, and domains 4-5 binding CD44, a co-receptor abundant on T cells. TGM6 is a homologue of TGM1 that is co-expressed with TGM1, but lacks domains 1 and 2. Herein, we show that TGM6 binds TβRII through domain 3, but does not bind TβRI, or other type I or type II receptors of the TGF-β family. In TGF-β reporter assays in fibroblasts, TGM6, but not truncated TGM6 lacking domains 4 and 5, potently inhibits TGF-β- and TGM1-induced signaling, consistent with its ability to bind TβRII but not TβRI or other receptors of the TGF-β family. However, TGM6 does not bind CD44 and is unable to inhibit TGF-β and TGM1 signaling in T cells. To understand how TGM6 binds TβRII, the X-ray crystal structure of the TGM6 domain 3 bound to TβRII was determined at 1.4 Å. This showed that TGM6 domain 3 binds TβRII through an interface remarkably similar to the TGF-β:TβRII interface. These results suggest that TGM6 has adapted its domain structure and sequence to mimic TGF-β binding to TβRII and function as a potent TGF-β and TGM1 antagonist in fibroblasts. The coexpression of TGM6, along with the immunosuppressive TGMs that activate the TGF-β pathway, may prevent tissue damage caused by the parasite as it progresses through its life cycle from the intestinal lumen to submucosal tissues and back again.

Reparative effect of different dietary additives on soybean meal-induced intestinal injury in yellow drum (Nibea albiflora)

Soybean meal (SBM) is an acceptable replacement for unsustainable marine fish meal (FM) in aquaculture. However, we previously reported that high dietary SBM supplementation causes intestinal inflammatory injury in yellow drum (Nibea albiflora). Accordingly, a 4-week SBM-induced enteritis (SBMIE) in yellow drum trial was conducted first, followed by a 4-week additive-supplemented reparative experiment to evaluate the reparative effect of five additives on SBMIE in yellow drum. The control diet comprised 50% FM protein substituted with SBM. The additive-supplemented diet was added with 0.02% curcumin (SBMC), 0.05% berberine (SBM-BBR), 0.5% tea polyphenols (SBM-TPS), 1% taurine (SBM-TAU), or 0.8% glutamine (SBM-GLU) based on the control diet, respectively. The weight gain (WG), specific growth rate (SGR), feed efficiency ratio (FER), and survival rate (SR) of fish fed the additive-supplemented diets were significantly higher than those of fish fed the SBM diet. The WG, SGR, and FER of fish fed the SBMC, SBM-GLU and SBM-TAU diets were significantly higher than those of fish fed other diets. Moreover, fish fed the additive-supplemented diets SBMC and SBM-GLU, exhibited significantly increased intestinal villus height (IVH), intestinal muscular thickness (IMRT), and intestinal mucosal thickness (IMLT) and significantly decreased crypt depth (CD) in comparison with those fed the SBM diets. The relative expression of intestinal tight junction factors (ocln, zo1), cytoskeletal factors (f-actin, arp2/3), and anti-inflammatory cytokines (il10, tgfb) mRNA was remarkably elevated in fish fed additive-supplemented diets than those of fish fed the SBM diet. Whereas, the relative expression of intestinal myosin light chain kinase (mlck) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (il1, il6, tnfa) mRNA was markedly lower in fish fed the additive-supplemented diets. The highest relative expression of intestinal ocln, f-actin, and arp2/3 and the lowest relative expression of intestinal mlck were found in fish fed the SBMC diet. Hence, all five dietary additives effectively repaired the intestinal injury induced by SBM, with curcumin exhibiting the strongest repair effect for SBMIE in yellow drum.

Effects of dietary Glycyrrhiza polysaccharide supplementation on growth performance, intestinal antioxidants, immunity and microbiota in weaned piglets

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of dietary Glycyrrhiza polysaccharide (GCP) supplementation on growth performance, intestinal antioxidants, immunity and microbiota in weaned piglets. One hundred and twenty 28-day-old weaned piglets were randomly assigned into five groups (four replicates per group) and fed a basal diet with GCP at 0, 500, 1000, 2000 and 4000 mg/kg for four weeks, respectively. Results showed that 1000 mg/kg GCP improved piglets' ADG and ADFI and reduced FCR (p < .05). Thus, the 0 and 1000 mg/kg GCP dose were selected for subsequent experiments. We found that 1000 mg/GCP increased SOD and T-AOC and decreased MDA in the jejunal mucosa (p < .05). Dietary 1000 mg/kg GCP also resulted in high levels of sIgA, IL-10 and TGF-β, whereas IL-2 dropped dramatically (p < .05). The relative expression levels of ZO-1, CLDN, OCLDN, TLR-4, IL-10, TGF-β, Nrf-2, SOD1 and CAT increased in the jejunal mucosa, whereas INF-γ decreased (p < .05). 1000 mg/kg GCP treatment altered the diversity and community composition of cecal microbiota in pigs, with increasing relative abundance of Bacteroidota and Lactobacillus at phylum and genus levels (p < .05), respectively. The results suggested that dietary 1000 mg/kg GCP could improve growth performance and intestinal health of weaned piglets.

The role of genetics and gender specific differences in neurodegenerative disorders: Insights from molecular and immune landscape

Neurodegenerative disorders (NDDs) are the most common neurological disorders with high prevalence and have significant socioeconomic implications. Understanding the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms associated with the immune system can be effective in disease etiology, leading to more effective therapeutic approaches for both females and males. The central nervous system (CNS) actively participates in immune responses, both within and outside the CNS. Immune system activation is a common feature in NDDs. Gender-specific factors play a significant role in the prevalence, progression, and manifestation of NDDs. Neuroinflammation, in both inflammatory neurological and neurodegenerative conditions, is defined by the triggering of microglia and astrocyte cell activation. This results in the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Numerous studies have documented the role of neuroinflammation in neurological diseases, highlighting the involvement of immune signaling pathways in disease development. Converging evidence support immune system involvement during neurodegeneration in NDDs. In this review, we summarize emerging evidence that reveals gender-dependent differences in immune responses related to NDDs. Also, we highlight sex differences in immune responses and discuss how these sex-specific influences can increase the risk of NDDs. Understanding the role of gender-specific factors can aid in developing targeted therapeutic strategies and improving patient outcomes. Ultimately, the better understanding of these mechanisms contributed to sex-dependent immune response in NDDs, can be critically usful in targeting of immune signaling cascades in such disorders. In this regard, sex-related immune responses in NDDs may be promising and effective targets in therapeutic strategies.

TGF-β1 signaling and Smad7 control T-cell responses in health and immune-mediated disorders

Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, a member of the TGF-β superfamily, is produced by many immune and nonimmune cells and has pleiotropic effects on both innate and adaptive immunity, especially in the control of T-cell differentiation and function. Consistently, loss of TGF-β1 function is associated with exacerbated T-cell-dependent inflammatory responses that culminate in pathological processes in allergic and immune-mediated diseases. In this review, we highlight the roles of TGF-β1 in immunity, focusing mainly on its ability to promote differentiation of regulatory T cells, T helper (Th)-17, and Th9 cells, thus contributing to amplifying or restricting T-cell responses in health and human diseases (e.g., inflammatory bowel diseases, type 1 diabetes, asthma, and MS). In addition, we discuss the involvement of Smad7, an inhibitor of TGF-β1 signaling, in immune-mediated disorders (e.g., psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, MS, and inflammatory bowel diseases), as well as the discordant results of clinical trials with mongersen, an oral pharmaceutical compound containing a Smad7 antisense oligonucleotide, in patients with Crohn's disease. Further work is needed to ascertain the reasons for such a discrepancy as well as to identify better candidates for treatment with Smad7 inhibitors.

The Dual Role of the Airway Epithelium in Asthma: Active Barrier and Regulator of Inflammation

Chronic airway inflammation is the cornerstone on which bronchial asthma arises, and in turn, chronic inflammation arises from a complex interplay between environmental factors such as allergens and pathogens and immune cells as well as structural cells constituting the airway mucosa. Airway epithelial cells (AECs) are at the center of these processes. On the one hand, they represent the borderline separating the body from its environment in order to keep inner homeostasis. The airway epithelium forms a multi-tiered, self-cleaning barrier that involves an unstirred, discontinuous mucous layer, the dense and rigid mesh of the glycocalyx, and the cellular layer itself, consisting of multiple, densely interconnected cell types. On the other hand, the airway epithelium represents an immunologically highly active tissue once its barrier has been penetrated: AECs play a pivotal role in releasing protective immunoglobulin A. They express a broad spectrum of pattern recognition receptors, enabling them to react to environmental stressors that overcome the mucosal barrier. By releasing alarmins-proinflammatory and regulatory cytokines-AECs play an active role in the formation, strategic orientation, and control of the subsequent defense reaction. Consequently, the airway epithelium is of vital importance to chronic inflammatory diseases, such as asthma.

Innate lymphoid cells and innate-like T cells in cancer - at the crossroads of innate and adaptive immunity

Immunotherapies targeting conventional T cells have revolutionized systemic treatment for many cancers, yet only a subset of patients benefit from these approaches. A better understanding of the complex immune microenvironment of tumours is needed to design the next generation of immunotherapeutics. Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) and innate-like T cells (ILTCs) are abundant, tissue-resident lymphocytes that have recently been shown to have critical roles in many types of cancers. ILCs and ILTCs rapidly respond to changes in their surrounding environment and act as the first responders to bridge innate and adaptive immunity. This places ILCs and ILTCs as pivotal orchestrators of the final antitumour immune response. In this Review, we outline hallmarks of ILCs and ILTCs and discuss their emerging role in antitumour immunity, as well as the pathophysiological adaptations leading to their pro-tumorigenic function. We explore the pleiotropic, in parts redundant and sometimes opposing, mechanisms that underlie the delicate interplay between the different subsets of ILCs and ILTCs. Finally, we highlight their role in amplifying and complementing conventional T cell functions and summarize immunotherapeutic strategies for targeting ILCs and ILTCs in cancer.

TGF-β signaling pathway: Therapeutic targeting and potential for anti-cancer immunity

Transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) is a pleiotropic secretory cytokine exhibiting both cancer-inhibitory and promoting properties. It transmits its signals via Suppressor of Mother against Decapentaplegic (SMAD) and non-SMAD pathways and regulates cell proliferation, differentiation, invasion, migration, and apoptosis. In non-cancer and early-stage cancer cells, TGFβ signaling suppresses cancer progression via inducing apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, or anti-proliferation, and promoting cell differentiation. On the other hand, TGFβ may also act as an oncogene in advanced stages of tumors, wherein it develops immune-suppressive tumor microenvironments and induces the proliferation of cancer cells, invasion, angiogenesis, tumorigenesis, and metastasis. Higher TGFβ expression leads to the instigation and development of cancer. Therefore, suppressing TGFβ signals may present a potential treatment option for inhibiting tumorigenesis and metastasis. Different inhibitory molecules, including ligand traps, anti-sense oligo-nucleotides, small molecule receptor-kinase inhibitors, small molecule inhibitors, and vaccines, have been developed and clinically trialed for blocking the TGFβ signaling pathway. These molecules are not pro-oncogenic response-specific but block all signaling effects induced by TGFβ. Nonetheless, targeting the activation of TGFβ signaling with maximized specificity and minimized toxicity can enhance the efficacy of therapeutic approaches against this signaling pathway. The molecules that are used to target TGFβ are non-cytotoxic to cancer cells but designed to curtail the over-activation of invasion and metastasis driving TGFβ signaling in stromal and cancer cells. Here, we discussed the critical role of TGFβ in tumorigenesis, and metastasis, as well as the outcome and the promising achievement of TGFβ inhibitory molecules in the treatment of cancer.

Compound 511 ameliorates MRSA-induced lung injury by attenuating morphine-induced immunosuppression in mice via PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway

BACKGROUND

Opioids are widely used in clinical practice. However, their long-term administration causes respiratory depression, addiction, tolerance, and severe immunosuppression. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) can alleviate opioid-induced adverse effects. Compound 511 is particularly developed for treating opioid addiction, based on Jiumi Liangfang, an ancient Chinese drug treatment and rehabilitation monograph completed in 1833 A.D. It is an herbal formula containing eight plants, each of them contributing to the overall pharmacological effect of the product: Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer (8.8%), Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch.) (18.2%), Datura metel Linn. (10.95%), Corydalis yanhusuo W. T. Wang (14.6%), Acanthopanar gracilistμlus W. W. Smith (10.95%), Ophiopogon japonicus (Linn. f.) Ker-Gawl. (10.95%), Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino (10.95%), Polygala arvensis Willd. (14.6%). This formula effectively ameliorates opioid-induced immunosuppression. However, the underlying mechanism remains unclear.

PURPOSE

To reveal the effects of Compound 511 on the immune response of morphine-induced immunosuppressive mice and their potential underlying molecular mechanism. This study provides information for a better clinical approach and scientific use of opioids.

METHODS

Immunosuppression was induced in mice by repeated morphine administration. Th1/Th2/Th17/Treg cell levels were measured using flow cytometry. Splenic transcription factors of Th1/Th2/Th17/Treg and outputs of the regulatory PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway were determined. Subsequently, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was administered intranasally to morphine-induced immunosuppressive mice pretreated with Compound 511. Their lung inflammatory status was assessed using micro-computer tomography (CT), hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

RESULTS

Compared to morphine, Compound 511 significantly decreased the immune organ indexes of mice, corrected the Th1/Th2 and Treg/Th17 imbalance in the immune organs and peripheral blood, reduced the mRNA levels of FOXP3 and GATA3, and increased those of STAT3 and T-bet in the spleen. It improved immune function and reduced MRSA-induced lung inflammation.

CONCLUSION

Compound 511 ameliorates opioid-induced immunosuppression by regulating the balance of Th1/Th2 and Th17/Treg via PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. Thus, it effectively reduces susceptibility of morphine-induced immunosuppressive mice to MRSA infection.

Breast cancer prevention by short-term inhibition of TGFβ signaling

Cancer prevention has a profound impact on cancer-associated mortality and morbidity. We previously identified TGFβ signaling as a candidate regulator of mammary epithelial cells associated with breast cancer risk. Here, we show that short-term TGFBR inhibitor (TGFBRi) treatment of peripubertal ACI inbred and Sprague Dawley outbred rats induces lasting changes and prevents estrogen- and carcinogen-induced mammary tumors, respectively. We identify TGFBRi-responsive cell populations by single cell RNA-sequencing, including a unique epithelial subpopulation designated secretory basal cells (SBCs) with progenitor features. We detect SBCs in normal human breast tissues and find them to be associated with breast cancer risk. Interactome analysis identifies SBCs as the most interactive cell population and the main source of insulin-IGF signaling. Accordingly, inhibition of TGFBR and IGF1R decrease proliferation of organoid cultures. Our results reveal a critical role for TGFβ in regulating mammary epithelial cells relevant to breast cancer and serve as a proof-of-principle cancer prevention strategy.

Suppression of airway allergic eosinophilia by Hp-TGM, a helminth mimic of TGF-β

Type 2-high asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways which is increasingly prevalent in countries where helminth parasite infections are rare, and characterized by T helper 2 (Th2)-dependent accumulation of eosinophils in the lungs. Regulatory cytokines such as TGF-β can restrain inflammatory reactions, dampen allergic Th2 responses, and control eosinophil activation. The murine helminth parasite Heligmosomoides polygyrus releases a TGF-β mimic (Hp-TGM) that replicates the biological and functional properties of TGF-β despite bearing no structural similarity to the mammalian protein. Here, we investigated if Hp-TGM could alleviate allergic airway inflammation in mice exposed to Alternaria alternata allergen, house dust mite (HDM) extract or alum-adjuvanted ovalbumin protein (OVA). Intranasal administration of Hp-TGM during Alternaria exposure sharply reduced airway and lung tissue eosinophilia along with bronchoalveolar lavage fluid IL-5 and lung IL-33 cytokine levels at 24 h. The protective effect of Hp-TGM on airway eosinophilia was also obtained in the longer T-cell mediated models of HDM or OVA sensitisation with significant inhibition of eotaxin-1, IL-4 and IL-13 responses depending on the model and time-point. Hp-TGM was also protective when administered parenterally either when given at the time of allergic sensitisation or during airway allergen challenge. This project has taken the first steps in identifying the role of Hp-TGM in allergic asthma and highlighted its ability to control lung inflammation and allergic pathology. Future research will investigate the mode of action of Hp-TGM against airway allergic eosinophilia, and further explore its potential to be developed as a biotherapeutic in allergic asthma.

Peripheral blood CD4posCD25posFoxP3pos cells and inflammatory cytokines as biomarkers of response in rheumatoid arthritis patients treated with CTLA4-Ig

BACKGROUND

Prognostic biomarkers of treatment response to distinct biologic disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (b-DMARDs) are still lacking within the management of rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

METHODS

Thirty-four b-DMARDs naive RA patients, divided by disease duration into early (cohort 1) and long standing (cohort 2), received CTLA4-Ig. At study entry, and every 3 months for 1 year, each patient underwent peripheral blood (PB)-derived CD4^pos cell subpopulation assessment by flow cytometry, STAT3 and STAT5 expression by RT-PCR and IL-6, IL-12p70, TGFβ, and IL-10 serum levels by ELISA. The DAS and CDAI remission was assessed at 6 and 12 months.

RESULTS

DAS- and CDAI-defined remission within 12 months was achieved by 16 (47.1%) and 8 (23.5%) RA patients, respectively. Considering the whole RA cohort, CTLA4-Ig induced a significant decrease of IL-6 serum levels from baseline to 6 and 12 months, as well as of PB CD4^posCD25^posFoxP3^pos cells at 6 and 12 months, and of CD4^posIL17^pos cells after 12 months. PB CD4^pos cells of RA patients showed higher STAT3 and STAT5 expression than healthy controls, which remained unchanged within 12 months of treatment. At study entry, RA patients achieving DAS remission had significantly lower IL-6 serum levels than RA patients not achieving this outcome. In particular, having baseline IL-6 serum levels ≤ 8.4 pg/ml, significantly identified naïve to b-DMARDs RA patients more likely to achieve DAS-remission under CTLA4-Ig at 6 months (66.7%) compared to RA patients with baseline IL-6 serum levels > 8.4 pg/ml [15.4%, OR (95%Cis) 11.00 (1.75-55.82)]. Moreover, having CD4^posCD25^posFoxP3^pos cells rate ≥ 6.0% significantly identifies naïve to b-DMARDs early RA patients more likely to achieve DAS remission at 6 months (83.3%) compared to RA patients with baseline CD4^posCD25^posFoxP3^pos cells < 6.0% [16.7%, OR (95% Cis) 25.00 (1.00-336.81)].

CONCLUSIONS

Baseline IL-6 serum levels and peripheral blood-derived CD4^pos subpopulations are putative novel prognostic biomarkers of CTLA4-Ig response in RA patients.

Advance of T regulatory cells in tumor microenvironment remodeling and immunotherapy in pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is highly aggressive, deadly, and is rarely diagnosed early. Regulatory T cells (Treg) are a multifunctional class of immunosuppressive T cells that help maintain immunologic homeostasis and participate in autoimmune diseases, transplants, and tumors. This cell type mediates immune homeostasis, tolerance, and surveillance and is associated with poor outcomes in PDAC. Tregs remodel the tumor immune microenvironment, mediate tumor immune escape, and promote tumor invasion and metastasis. A promising area of research involves regulating Tregs to reduce their infiltration into tumor tissues. However, the complexity of the immune microenvironment has limited the efficacy of immunotherapy in PDAC. Treg modulation combined with other treatments is emerging. This review summarizes the mechanisms of Tregs activity in tumor immune microenvironments in PDAC and the latest developments in immunotherapy and clinical trials.

The role of transforming growth factor beta in thyroid autoimmunity: current knowledge and future perspectives

The complex mechanisms, which are related to the pathophysiology and the development of autoimmune thyroid diseases, involve transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) and its interplay with the immune system. The aim of this review is to examine the role of TGF-β regarding thyroid autoimmunity and explore the potent role of this molecule either as a diagnostic or prognostic marker or a therapeutic target regarding autoimmune thyroid diseases. TGF-β is clearly a master regulator of the immune response, exerting either inhibitory or facilitatory effects on cells of the immune system. Thus, this molecule is involved in the pathogenesis and development of autoimmune thyroid diseases. Recent research has revealed the involvement of TGF-β in the pathophysiology of autoimmune thyroid diseases. The role of TGF-β in the development of autoimmune thyroid diseases varies, depending on its concentrations, the type of the activated TGF-β signalling pathway, the genetic predisposition of the patient and the pathophysiologic stage of the disease. TGF-β could emerge as a useful diagnostic or prognostic marker for the evolution of thyroid autoimmunity. Promising perspectives for the effective therapeutic use of TGF-β regarding thyroid autoimmunity exist. The main treatment approaches incorporate either enhancement of the immunosuppressive role of TGF-β or inhibition of its facilitatory role in the autoimmune thyroid diseases. Further research towards deeper understanding of TGF-β physiology and clinical application of its possible therapeutic role regarding thyroid autoimmunity is needed.

Convergent evolution of a parasite-encoded complement control protein-scaffold to mimic binding of mammalian TGF-β to its receptors, TβRI and TβRII

The mouse intestinal helminth Heligmosomoides polygyrus modulates host immune responses by secreting a transforming growth factor (TGF)-β mimic (TGM), to expand the population of Foxp3⁺ T_regs. TGM comprises five complement control protein (CCP)-like domains, designated D1-D5. Though lacking homology to TGF-β, TGM binds directly to the TGF-β receptors TβRI and TβRII and stimulates the differentiation of naïve T-cells into T_regs. However, the molecular determinants of binding are unclear. Here, we used surface plasmon resonance, isothermal calorimetry, NMR spectroscopy, and mutagenesis to investigate how TGM binds the TGF-β receptors. We demonstrate that binding is modular, with D1-D2 binding to TβRI and D3 binding to TβRII. D1-D2 and D3 were further shown to compete with TGF-β(TβRII)₂ and TGF-β for binding to TβRI and TβRII, respectively. The solution structure of TGM-D3 revealed that TGM adopts a CCP-like fold but is also modified to allow the C-terminal strand to diverge, leading to an expansion of the domain and opening potential interaction surfaces. TGM-D3 also incorporates a long structurally ordered hypervariable loop, adding further potential interaction sites. Through NMR shift perturbations and binding studies of TGM-D3 and TβRII variants, TGM-D3 was shown to occupy the same site of TβRII as bound by TGF-β using both a novel interaction surface and the hypervariable loop. These results, together with the identification of other secreted CCP-like proteins with immunomodulatory activity in H. polygyrus, suggest that TGM is part of a larger family of evolutionarily plastic parasite effector molecules that mediate novel interactions with their host.

Druggability of lipid metabolism modulation against renal fibrosis

Renal fibrosis contributes to progressive damage to renal structure and function. It is a common pathological process as chronic kidney disease develops into kidney failure, irrespective of diverse etiologies, and eventually leads to death. However, there are no effective drugs for renal fibrosis treatment at present. Lipid aggregation in the kidney and consequent lipotoxicity always accompany chronic kidney disease and fibrosis. Numerous studies have revealed that restoring the defective fatty acid oxidation in the kidney cells can mitigate renal fibrosis. Thus, it is an important strategy to reverse the dysfunctional lipid metabolism in the kidney, by targeting critical regulators of lipid metabolism. In this review, we highlight the potential "druggability" of lipid metabolism to ameliorate renal fibrosis and provide current pre-clinical evidence, exemplified by some representative druggable targets and several other metabolic regulators with anti-renal fibrosis roles. Then, we introduce the preliminary progress of noncoding RNAs as promising anti-renal fibrosis drug targets from the perspective of lipid metabolism. Finally, we discuss the prospects and deficiencies of drug targeting lipid reprogramming in the kidney.

Role of TGF-Beta Signaling in Beta Cell Proliferation and Function in Diabetes

Beta (β) cell dysfunction or loss is the common pathological feature in all types of diabetes mellitus (diabetes). Resolving the underlying mechanism may facilitate the treatment of diabetes by preserving the β cell population and function. It is known that TGF-β signaling plays diverse roles in β cell development, function, proliferation, apoptosis, and dedifferentiation. Inhibition of TGF-β signaling expands β cell lineage in the development. However, deletion of Tgfbr1 has no influence on insulin demand-induced but abolishes inflammation-induced β cell proliferation. Among canonical TGF-β signaling, Smad3 but not Smad2 is the predominant repressor of β cell proliferation in response to systemic insulin demand. Deletion of Smad3 simultaneously improves β cell function, apoptosis, and systemic insulin resistance with the consequence of eliminated overt diabetes in diabetic mouse models, revealing Smad3 as a key mediator and ideal therapeutic target for type-2 diabetes. However, Smad7 shows controversial effects on β cell proliferation and glucose homeostasis in animal studies. On the other hand, overexpression of Tgfb1 prevents β cells from autoimmune destruction without influence on β cell function. All these findings reveal the diverse regulatory roles of TGF-β signaling in β cell biology.

The Regulatory Microenvironment in Feathers of Chickens Infected with Very Virulent Marek's Disease Virus

Vaccines against Marek's disease can protect chickens against clinical disease; however, infected chickens continue to propagate the Marek's disease virus (MDV) in feather follicles and can shed the virus into the environment. Therefore, the present study investigated if MDV could induce an immunoregulatory microenvironment in feathers of chickens and whether vaccines can overcome the immune evasive mechanisms of MDV. The results showed an abundance of CD4+CD25+ and CD4+ transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β)+ T regulatory cells in the feathers of MDV-infected chickens at 21 days post-infection. In contrast, vaccinated chickens had a lower number of regulatory T cells. Furthermore, the expression of TGF-β and programmed cell death receptor (PD)-1 increased considerably in the feathers of Marek's disease virus-infected chickens. The results of the present study raise the possibility of an immunoregulatory environment in the feather pulp of MDV-infected chickens, which may in turn favor replication of infectious MDV in this tissue. Exploring the evasive strategies employed by MDV will facilitate the development of control measures to prevent viral replication and transmission.

Research progress of the application of mesenchymal stem cells in chronic inflammatory systemic diseases

Chronic inflammatory systemic diseases are the result of the body's immune imbalance, with a long course and recurring episodes. Immunosuppressants are the main treatment, but not all patients respond well to it. Being capable of both self-renewal and differentiation into multiple tissue cells and low immunogenicity, mesenchymal stem cell is a promising treatment for chronic inflammatory systemic diseases. In this article, we describe the research progress and clinical application of mesenchymal stem cells in chronic inflammatory systemic diseases and look for influencing factors and biomarkers that can predict the outcome of patient with mesenchymal stem cell transplantation.

Bioactive compounds, nutritional profile and health benefits of colostrum: a review

Bovine colostrum is defined as first milk by milching animals responsible for providing the innate immunity to the neonatal and possess many immunoglobulins for preventing the calf from diseases. Colostrum consist of many bioactive compounds like proteins, enzymes, growth factors, immunoglobulins and nucleotides that provides several benefits to human health. Numerous clinical and pre-clinical studies have demonstrated the therapeutic benefits of the bovine colostrum. This review focusses on bioactive compounds, their health benefits, potential of colostrum for developing several health foods and prevention of respiratory and gastrointestinal tract disorders. Processing can also be done to extend shelf-life and extraction of bioactive constituents either as encapsulated or as extracts. The products derived from bovine colostrum are high-end supplements possessing high nutraceutical value.

The role of TGF-β pathway alterations in immune regulation as a potential pan-cancer biomarker in immunotherapy

BACKGROUND

Depending on the context, the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) signaling pathway is involved in opposing cell processes of tumor suppression and tumor promotion. However, the effects of TGF-β pathway on immunotherapy efficacy have not yet been systematically investigated.

METHODS

In this study, we have extracted the available data of whole-exome sequencing, messenger RNA (mRNA) expression, baseline characterization, and prognosis information of 10,912 pan-cancer patients from The Cancer Genome Atlas to explore the role of TGF-β pathway in immune regulation. Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue samples from 6,717 Chinese cancer patients assayed by next-generation sequencing (NGS) were used as a validation cohort (3DMed cohort). Data sets from the public MSK (Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center) cohort (N=1,610) were used to explore the association of TGF-β pathway with immunotherapy effects.

RESULTS

The results showed that TGF-β pathway alteration was significantly correlated with high microsatellite instability (MSI), high tumor mutational burden, and high neoantigen burden (TNB) (P<0.001 for each). Consistently, the pathway mutations were associated with distinct patterns of immune-related gene expression and tumor-infiltrating immune cells. Patients with TGF-β pathway mutations exhibited significantly worse prognosis than did the wild-type patients regardless of the interventions [overall survival (OS): hazard ratio (HR) 1.20; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.08-1.33; P=0.001]. However, when treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), superior survival benefit was observed in patients from the mutation group versus the wild-type group (OS: HR 0.73; 95% CI: 0.61-0.88; P=0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, our study suggested that mutations in TGF-β pathway may be associated with positive immune regulation and better efficacy of immunotherapy.

The multi-faceted roles of TGF-β in regulation of immunity to infection

Transforming Growth Factor-β is a potent regulator of the immune system, acting at every stage from thymic differentiation, population of the periphery, control of responsiveness, tissue repair and generation of memory. It is therefore a central player in the immune response to infectious pathogens, but its contribution is often clouded by multiple roles acting on different cells in time and space. Hence, context is all-important in understanding when TGF-β is beneficial or detrimental to the outcome of infection. In this review, a full range of infectious agents from viruses to helminth parasites are explored within this framework, drawing contrasts and general conclusions about the importance of TGF-β in these diseases.

Sepsis Inflammation Impairs the Generation of Functional Dendritic Cells by Targeting Their Progenitors

Background

Sepsis is a complex systemic immune dysfunction syndrome induced by infection. Sepsis has a high mortality rate, with most patients dying due to systemic organ failure or secondary infection. Dendritic cells (DCs) are professional antigen-presenting cells. Upon infection with microbes, DCs are activated to induce adaptive immune responses for controlling infection. DC generation and function are impaired during sepsis; however, the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown.

Methods

Peripheral blood samples from sepsis patients were collected to examine DC subsets, DC progenitors, and apoptosis of DCs by flow cytometer. In vitro induction of DCs from hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells were established and a variety of sepsis-associated inflammatory mediators [e.g., interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF)] and Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were determined for the impact on DC generation and function in vitro.

Results

Our results demonstrate that sepsis-induced systemic inflammation impairs the capacity of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) to produce DCs, including conventional DCs (cDCs) and plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs). We investigated peripheral blood (PB) samples from 34 pediatric patients on days 1 to 7 following diagnosis. Compared to healthy donors (n = 18), the sepsis patients exhibited a significantly fewer percentage and number of pDCs and cDCs, and a lower expression of antigen presenting molecule HLD-DR and co-stimulatory molecules (e.g., CD86) on the surface of DCs. This sepsis-induced DC impairment was associated with significantly increased apoptotic death of DCs and marked decreases of progenitor cells that give rise to DCs. Furthermore, we observed that among the tested sepsis-associated cytokines (e.g., IFN-γ, IL-1β, TNF-α, and G-CSF), G-CSF and IFN-γ impaired DC development from cultured HSPCs. G-CSF also markedly decreased the expression of HLA-DR on HSPC-derived DCs and their cytokine production, including IL-12 and IFN-β.

Conclusions

Collectively, these findings indicate that sepsis impairs the survival of functional DCs and their development from HSPCs. Strategies for improving DC reconstitution following sepsis may restore DC progenitors and their associated function.

Intestinal immunoregulation: lessons from human mendelian diseases

The mechanisms that maintain intestinal homeostasis despite constant exposure of the gut surface to multiple environmental antigens and to billions of microbes have been scrutinized over the past 20 years with the goals to gain basic knowledge, but also to elucidate the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) and to identify therapeutic targets for these severe diseases. Considerable insight has been obtained from studies based on gene inactivation in mice as well as from genome wide screens for genetic variants predisposing to human IBD. These studies are, however, not sufficient to delineate which pathways play key nonredundant role in the human intestinal barrier and to hierarchize their respective contribution. Here, we intend to illustrate how such insight can be derived from the study of human Mendelian diseases, in which severe intestinal pathology results from single gene defects that impair epithelial and or hematopoietic immune cell functions. We suggest that these diseases offer the unique opportunity to study in depth the pathogenic mechanisms leading to perturbation of intestinal homeostasis in humans. Furthermore, molecular dissection of monogenic intestinal diseases highlights key pathways that might be druggable and therapeutically targeted in common forms of IBD.

The Role of TGF-β Signaling Pathways in Cancer and Its Potential as a Therapeutic Target

The transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling pathway mediates various biological functions, and its dysregulation is closely related to the occurrence of malignant tumors. However, the role of TGF-β signaling in tumorigenesis and development is complex and contradictory. On the one hand, TGF-β signaling can exert antitumor effects by inhibiting proliferation or inducing apoptosis of cancer cells. On the other hand, TGF-β signaling may mediate oncogene effects by promoting metastasis, angiogenesis, and immune escape. This review summarizes the recent findings on molecular mechanisms of TGF-β signaling. Specifically, this review evaluates TGF-β's therapeutic potential as a target by the following perspectives: ligands, receptors, and downstream signaling. We hope this review can trigger new ideas to improve the current clinical strategies to treat tumors related to the TGF-β signaling pathway.

Targeting immunosuppression by TGF-β1 for cancer immunotherapy

The TGF-β1 cytokine is a key mediator of many biological processes. Complex regulatory mechanisms are in place that allow one single molecule to exert so many distinct indispensable activities. The complexity of TGF-β1 biology is further illustrated by the opposing dual roles it plays during cancer progression. Risks of toxicities combined with lack of convincing therapeutical efficacy explain at least in part why therapies targeting TGF-β1 have lagged behind in past decades. However, recent successes of immunostimulatory antibodies for the immunotherapy of cancer and findings that TGF-β1 activity associates with resistance to immunotherapeutic drugs have revived the field. In this review, we discuss the biology of TGF-β1 with a special focus on its roles in regulating immune responses in the context of cancer. We describe the various therapeutic approaches available to inhibit TGF-β signalling, and more recent findings that allow selective targeting of specific sources of TGF-β activity, which may prove relevant to increase the efficacy and reduce the toxicity of cancer immunotherapy.

The parasite cytokine mimic Hp-TGM potently replicates the regulatory effects of TGF-β on murine CD4+ T cells

Transforming growth factor‐beta (TGF‐β) family proteins mediate many vital biological functions in growth, development and regulation of the immune system. TGF‐β itself controls immune homeostasis and inflammation, including conversion of naïve CD4⁺ T cells into Foxp3⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs) in the presence of interleukin‐2 and T‐cell receptor ligands. The helminth parasite Heligmosomoides polygyrus exploits this pathway through a structurally novel TGF‐β mimic (Hp‐TGM), which binds to mammalian TGF‐β receptors and induces Tregs. Here, we performed detailed comparisons of Hp‐TGM with mammalian TGF‐β. Compared with TGF‐β, Hp‐TGM induced greater numbers of Foxp3⁺ Tregs (iTregs), with more intense Foxp3 expression. Both ligands upregulated Treg functional markers CD73, CD103 and programmed death‐ligand 1, but Hp‐TGM induced significantly higher CD39 expression than did TGF‐β. Interestingly, in contrast to canonical TGF‐β signaling through Smad2/3, Hp‐TGM stimulation was slower and more sustained. Gene expression profiles induced by TGF‐β and Hp‐TGM were remarkably similar, and both types of iTregs suppressed T‐cell responses in vitro and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis‐driven inflammation in vivo. In vitro, both types of iTregs were equally stable under inflammatory conditions, but Hp‐TGM‐induced iTregs were more stable in vivo during dextran sodium sulfate‐induced colitis, with greater retention of Foxp3 expression and lower conversion to a ROR‐γt⁺ phenotype. Altogether, results from this study suggest that the parasite cytokine mimic, Hp‐TGM, may deliver a qualitatively different signal to CD4⁺ T cells with downstream consequences for the long‐term stability of iTregs. These data highlight the potential of Hp‐TGM as a new modulator of T‐cell responses in vitro and in vivo.

Expression of Transforming Growth Factor Beta Isoforms in Canine Endometrium with Cystic Endometrial Hyperplasia-Pyometra Complex

Simple Summary

Pathomorphological changes and functional disorders of the uterus have long been a significant problem in the reproduction of dogs. The most commonly identified uterine disorders leading to permanent loss of fertility in dogs include cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH) and pyometra. These diseases may occur jointly as a CEH–pyometra complex. Despite numerous studies, the etiology of this disease remains unclear. TGF-β is considered to be one of the key factors in pathophysiological uterine disorders. The results indicate the significant expression of TGF-β1 in endometrial tissues in bitches affected by CEH–pyometra complex. Consequently, among all TGF-β isoforms, TGF-β1 is a potential biomarker involved in the regulation of a dog’s endometrium with proliferative and degenerative changes.

Abstract

Cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH) and pyometra are the most frequently diagnosed uterine diseases affecting bitches of different ages. Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) has been classified in females as a potential regulator of many endometrial changes during the estrous cycle or may be involved in pathological disorders. The aim of this study was to determine the expression of TGF-β1, -β2 and -β3 in the endometrium of bitches suffering from CEH or a CEH–pyometra complex compared to clinically healthy females (control group; CG). A significantly increased level of TGF-β1 mRNA expression was observed in the endometrium with CEH–pyometra compared to CEH and CG. Protein production of TGF-β1 was identified only in the endometrium of bitches with CEH–pyometra. An increase in TGF-β3 mRNA expression was observed in all the studied groups compared to CG. The expression of TGF-β2 mRNA was significantly higher in CEH and lower in CEH–pyometra uteri. The results indicate the presence of TGF-β cytokines in canine endometrial tissues affected by proliferative and degenerative changes. However, among all TGF-β isoforms, TGF-β1 could potentially be a key factor involved in the regulation of the endometrium in bitches with CEH–pyometra complex.

TGF-β Physiology as a Novel Therapeutic Target Regarding Autoimmune Thyroid Diseases: Where Do We Stand and What to Expect

Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), as a master regulator of immune response, is deeply implicated in the complex pathophysiology and development of autoimmune thyroid diseases. Based on the close interplay between thyroid autoimmunity and TGF-β, scientific interest was shifted to the understanding of the possible role of this molecule regarding the diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy of these diseases. The main aim of this review is to present research data about possible treatment options based on the role of TGF-β in thyroid autoimmunity. Suggested TGF-β-mediated therapeutic strategies regarding autoimmune thyroid diseases include either the enhancement of its immunosuppressive role or inhibition of its facilitatory role in thyroid autoimmunity. For example, the application of hr-TGF-β can be used to bolster the inhibitory role of TGF-β regarding the development of thyroid diseases, whereas anti-TGF-β antibodies and similar molecules could impede its immune-promoting effects by blocking different levels of TGF-β biosynthesis and activation pathways. In conclusion, TGF-β could evolve to a promising, novel therapeutic tool for thyroid autoimmunity.

Bi-allelic variants in IPO8 cause a connective tissue disorder associated with cardiovascular defects, skeletal abnormalities, and immune dysregulation

Dysregulated transforming growth factor TGF-β signaling underlies the pathogenesis of genetic disorders affecting the connective tissue such as Loeys-Dietz syndrome. Here, we report 12 individuals with bi-allelic loss-of-function variants in IPO8 who presented with a syndromic association characterized by cardio-vascular anomalies, joint hyperlaxity, and various degree of dysmorphic features and developmental delay as well as immune dysregulation; the individuals were from nine unrelated families. Importin 8 belongs to the karyopherin family of nuclear transport receptors and was previously shown to mediate TGF-β-dependent SMADs trafficking to the nucleus in vitro. The important in vivo role of IPO8 in pSMAD nuclear translocation was demonstrated by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated inactivation in zebrafish. Consistent with IPO8's role in BMP/TGF-β signaling, ipo8-/- zebrafish presented mild to severe dorso-ventral patterning defects during early embryonic development. Moreover, ipo8-/- zebrafish displayed severe cardiovascular and skeletal defects that mirrored the human phenotype. Our work thus provides evidence that IPO8 plays a critical and non-redundant role in TGF-β signaling during development and reinforces the existing link between TGF-β signaling and connective tissue defects.

Studying Sjögren's syndrome in mice: What is the best available model?

Sjögren's syndrome (SS) is a common autoimmune disease characterized by lymphocytic infiltration and destruction of exocrine glands. The disease manifests primarily in the salivary and lacrimal glands, but other organs are also involved, leading to dry mouth, dry eyes, and other extra-glandular manifestations. Studying the disease in humans is entailed with many limitations and restrictions; therefore, the need for a proper mouse model is mandatory. SS mouse models are categorized, depending on the disease emergence into spontaneous or experimentally manipulated models. The usefulness of each mouse model varies depending on the SS features exhibited by that model; each SS model has advanced our understanding of the disease pathogenesis. In this review article, we list all the available murine models which have been used to study SS and we comment on the characteristics exhibited by each mouse model to assist scientists to select the appropriate model for their specific studies. We also recommend a murine strain that is the most relevant to the ideal SS model, based on our experience acquired during previous and current investigations.

The Therapeutic Potential of Regulatory T Cells: Challenges and Opportunities

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are an immunosuppressive subgroup of CD4+ T cells which are identified by the expression of forkhead box protein P3 (Foxp3). The modulation capacity of these immune cells holds an important role in both transplantation and the development of autoimmune diseases. These cells are the main mediators of self-tolerance and are essential for avoiding excessive immune reactions. Tregs play a key role in the induction of peripheral tolerance that can prevent autoimmunity, by protecting self-reactive lymphocytes from the immune reaction. In contrast to autoimmune responses, tumor cells exploit Tregs in order to prevent immune cell recognition and anti-tumor immune response during the carcinogenesis process. Recently, numerous studies have focused on unraveling the biological functions and principles of Tregs and their primary suppressive mechanisms. Due to the promising and outstanding results, Tregs have been widely investigated as an alternative tool in preventing graft rejection and treating autoimmune diseases. On the other hand, targeting Tregs for the purpose of improving cancer immunotherapy is being intensively evaluated as a desirable and effective method. The purpose of this review is to point out the characteristic function and therapeutic potential of Tregs in regulatory immune mechanisms in transplantation tolerance, autoimmune diseases, cancer therapy, and also to discuss that how the manipulation of these mechanisms may increase the therapeutic options.

Molecular characterization, expression and functional analysis of TGFβ1-b in crucian carp (Carassius carassius)

Transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1) is a polyfunctional cytokine with important roles in growth, differentiation and immune function in various animals. In this study, PCR, bioinformatics, real-time quantitative PCR, prokaryotic expression, protein purification and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-TOF-MS) were applied to investigate the structural features and function of TGFβ1-b in crucian carp. The complete coding sequence (CDS) of TGFβ1-b was 1134 bp in length and was submitted to GenBank (ID: MH473141). TGFβ1-b encoded a putative protein of 377 amino acids and included a signal peptide consisting of 22 amino acids. TGFβ1-b was relatively conservative in fish and distant from mammals in terms of evolutionary relationship. TGFβ1-b was found to be expressed in various tissues, with the highest expression in the kidney. The expressions of TGFβ1-b in muscle, heart and liver were increased with the addition of Rhodopseudomonas palustris, Bacillus subtilis and Enterococcus faecium at 30 days (p < 0.01). While, the expressions of SMAD2, SMAD3 and SMAD7 were also up-regulated with the addition of R. palustris at 20 days (p < 0.01). The expression of TGFβ1-b could be affected by time and group factors (p < 0.05). Moreover, the expression vector TGFβ1-b-pDE2 was successfully constructed. Prokaryotic expression indicated that a 43 kDa target protein was obtained after induction with 1.5 mM isopropyl-beta-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) for 3.5 h at 37 °C for 200 r/h. The activities of alkaline phosphatase and lysozyme in injection TGFβ1-b protein group (ITg) and feeding broken bacterial liquid group (BTg) were significantly increased at 24 h (p < 0.01). And the activities of superoxide dismutase in ITg were significantly increased at 36 h (p < 0.01). Besides, the expressions of heat shock protein 30 and heat shock protein 47 in ITg and BTg were significantly increased (p < 0.01). Whereas, the expression of interleukin-11 was significantly reduced (p < 0.01). These results indicated that TGFβ1-b protein might play a role in immunity of crucian carp.

Immunomodulatory Role of the Extracellular Matrix Within the Liver Disease Microenvironment

Chronic liver disease when accompanied by underlying fibrosis, is characterized by an accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins and chronic inflammation. Although traditionally considered as a passive and largely architectural structure, the ECM is now being recognized as a source of potent damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP)s with immune-active peptides and domains. In parallel, the ECM anchors a range of cytokines, chemokines and growth factors, all of which are capable of modulating immune responses. A growing body of evidence shows that ECM proteins themselves are capable of modulating immunity either directly via ligation with immune cell receptors including integrins and TLRs, or indirectly through release of immunoactive molecules such as cytokines which are stored within the ECM structure. Notably, ECM deposition and remodeling during injury and fibrosis can result in release or formation of ECM-DAMPs within the tissue, which can promote local inflammatory immune response and chemotactic immune cell recruitment and inflammation. It is well described that the ECM and immune response are interlinked and mutually participate in driving fibrosis, although their precise interactions in the context of chronic liver disease are poorly understood. This review aims to describe the known pro-/anti-inflammatory and fibrogenic properties of ECM proteins and DAMPs, with particular reference to the immunomodulatory properties of the ECM in the context of chronic liver disease. Finally, we discuss the importance of developing novel biotechnological platforms based on decellularized ECM-scaffolds, which provide opportunities to directly explore liver ECM-immune cell interactions in greater detail.

Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Autoimmune Pathogenesis

Autoimmune diseases are conditions that emerge from abnormal immune responses to natural parts of the body. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membranous structures found in almost all types of cells. Because EVs often transport “cargo” between cells, their ability to crosstalk may be an important communication pathway within the body. The pathophysiological role of EVs is increasingly recognized in autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjogren's syndrome, Type 1 diabetes, and autoimmune thyroid disease. EVs are considered as biomarkers of these diseases. This article outlines existing knowledge on the biogenesis of EVs, their role as messegers in cellular communication and the function in T/B cell differentiation and maturation, and focusing on their potential application in autoimmune diseases.

Selective inhibition of TGF-β1 produced by GARP-expressing Tregs overcomes resistance to PD-1/PD-L1 blockade in cancer

TGF-β1, β2 and β3 bind a common receptor to exert vastly diverse effects in cancer, supporting either tumor progression by favoring metastases and inhibiting anti-tumor immunity, or tumor suppression by inhibiting malignant cell proliferation. Global TGF-β inhibition thus bears the risk of undesired tumor-promoting effects. We show that selective blockade of TGF-β1 production by Tregs with antibodies against GARP:TGF-β1 complexes induces regressions of mouse tumors otherwise resistant to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy. Effects of combined GARP:TGF-β1/PD-1 blockade are immune-mediated, do not require FcγR-dependent functions and increase effector functions of anti-tumor CD8⁺ T cells without augmenting immune cell infiltration or depleting Tregs within tumors. We find GARP-expressing Tregs and evidence that they produce TGF-β1 in one third of human melanoma metastases. Our results suggest that anti-GARP:TGF-β1 mAbs, by selectively blocking a single TGF-β isoform emanating from a restricted cellular source exerting tumor-promoting activity, may overcome resistance to PD-1/PD-L1 blockade in patients with cancer.

Inhibiting TGF-β1 to increase immune responses against tumors bears the risk of tumor-promoting toxicity. Here the authors show that selectively blocking TGF-β1 produced by immunosuppressive cells is feasible with anti-GARP:TGF-β1 antibodies and improves the efficacy of PD-1 blockade immunotherapy.

In Vitro Evaluation of Clinical Candidates of γ-Secretase Inhibitors: Effects on Notch Inhibition and Promoting Beige Adipogenesis and Mitochondrial Biogenesis

PURPOSE

Inhibition of Notch signaling has been recently demonstrated to promote beige adipocyte biogenesis. However, most γ-secretase inhibitors (GSIs) used to achieve pharmacological inhibition of Notch signaling are at the basic research or preclinical stage, limiting the translation of fundamental findings into clinical practice. This present study aimed to evaluate the potential of several clinical candidates of GSIs as browning agents for the treatment of obesity.

METHODS

Seven GSIs that are clinical candidates for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease or cancer were selected and their impacts on Notch inhibition as well as promoting beige biogenesis were compared using in vitro culture of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes.

RESULTS

Four compounds (i.e.RO4929097, PF-03084014, LY3039478, and BMS-906024) that efficiently inhibited the expression of Notch target genes in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes were identified. Moreover, these compounds were optimized for dose-dependent effects at three gradient concentrations (0.5, 1, and 10 μM) to promote beige adipogenesis and mitochondrial biogenesis in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes without causing severe cytotoxicity.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings not only highlight the potential of cross-therapeutic application of these GSIs for obesity treatment via inhibition of γ-secretase-mediated processing of Notch signaling, but also provide important experimental evidence to support further design and development of clinically translatable Notch-inhibiting drug delivery systems.

TGF-β2 interfering oligonucleotides used as adjuvants for microbial vaccines

The success of using immune checkpoint inhibitors to treat cancers implies that inhibiting an immunosuppressive cytokine, such as TGF-β2, could be a strategy to develop novel adjuvants for microbial vaccines. To develop nucleic acid based TGF-β2 inhibitors, we designed three antisense oligonucleotides, designated as TIO1, TIO2, and TIO3, targeting the conserve regions identical in human and mouse TGF-β2 mRNA 3'-untranslated region. In cultured immune cells, TIO3 and TIO1 significantly reduced the TGF-β2 mRNA expression and protein production. In mice, the TIO3 and TIO1, when formulated in various microbial vaccines, significantly enhanced the antibody response to the vaccines, and the TIO3-adjuvanted influenza virus vaccine induced effective protection against the influenza virus challenge. In the immunized mice, TIO3 formulated in microbial vaccines dramatically reduced surface-bound TGF-β2 expression on CD4⁺ T cells and CD19⁺ B cells in the lymph node (LN) cells and spleen cells; up-regulated the expression of CD40, CD80, CD86, and MHC II molecules on CD19⁺ B cells and CD11c⁺ dendritic cells; and promoted IFN-γ production in CD4⁺ T cells and CD8⁺ T cells in the LN cells. Overall, TIO3 or TIO1 could be used as a novel type of adjuvant for facilitating the microbial vaccines to elicit more vigorous and persistent antibody response by interfering with TGF-β2 expression.

Polymorphisms in the TGFB1 and FOXP3 genes are associated with the presence of antinuclear antibodies in chronic hepatitis C

Chronic infection with Hepacivirus C (HCV) can lead to the occurrence of antinuclear antibodies (ANAs) and changes in cytokine profiles that can be similar to autoimmune diseases. The aim of the study was to identify polymorphisms in important mediators of the immune response in association with ANAs, which could contribute to the development of autoimmunity in hepatitis C. The study included 87 patients with chronic hepatitis C who were evaluated for the presence of ANA (indirect immunofluorescence) and for polymorphisms in the FOXP3, IFNG, IL6, IL8, IL10, MBL2, CRP, TGFΒ1 and TNFA genes (real-time PCR). Of the patients evaluated, 17 (19.54%) had ANA reactivity. The G allele of the FOXP3 rs2232365 polymorphism was more frequent in ANA-positive women (p = 0.0231; OR = 3,285). The C allele of the TGFΒ1 rs1800469 polymorphism was associated with ANA production (p = 0.0169; OR = 2.88). The results suggest that polymorphisms in genes related to immunological regulation may be associated with mechanisms that lead to the emergence of autoantibodies in the context of chronic Hepacivirus C infection.

Chikungunya Virus Infection Outcome: A Systematic Review of Host Genetics

Background: Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a global concern, inducing chikungunya fever and trigging an arthritogenic chronic phase beyond some severe forms. Outcomes of CHIKV infections in humans are dependent on genetic variations. Here, a systematic review was performed to show evidence of genetic variations on infection outcomes of patients. Methods: Searches were performed in Scopus, SciELO, MEDLINE/PubMed, Web of Science, OneFile (GALE), Periódicos CAPES and ScienceDirect Journals databases. The PICOS approach was used to assess the eligibility of records. A meta-analysis was also conducted to show an association between described alleles/genes and CHIKV infection outcome. Results: Reviews of genetic variants were conducted on genes: CD 209, OAS1, OAS2, OAS3, MIF, TLR-3, TLR-7, TLR-8, MYD-88, KIR, HLA-B; HLA-C; DRB1 and DQB1. Studies were performed on Gabon, Singapore, and India, including Indians, Malay, Gabonese and Chinese ethnicities and published between 2009-2017. The meta-analysis was performed with DRB1 *01; *03; *04; *07; *10; *11; *13; *14 and *15 and DQB1 *02; *03; *05 and *06 alleles with Indian population sample. Sampling power was >80% and a significant positive association between DRB1*14 and CHIKV infection was found (OR = 1.67, 95% CI = 1.04-2.67; p = .03). Conclusion: Majority of the studies were conducted in India. Meta-analysis suggests that DRB1*14 is related to the susceptibility of symptomatic CHIKV infection in Indian population. The literature about CHIKV infection and genetic variations is scarce. The precise role of genetic variation in CHIKV is not clear yet. Further studies are necessary to provide more concrete evidences.

Mesenchymal stem cells induced regulatory dendritic cells from hemopoietic progenitor cells through Notch pathway and TGF-β synergistically

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are one of the attractive candidates in regenerative medicine of many clinical applications because of their low immunogenicity and immunomodulatory property. Our previous studies provided that mouse bone marrow-derived Sca-1⁺MSCs could drive the differentiation of regulatory DC (regDCs) (Scal-1⁺ BM-MSC-driven DC [sBM-DCs]) from hemopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs) and the Notch pathway played a critical role in maintaining the immunomodulatory property. However, the detailed mechanisms of their immunoregulatory capacity are not fully defined. In the present study, we show that BM-MSCs expressed high levels of Jagged 1 while sBM-DCs expressed high levels of Notch1. Jagged1 expressed on the surface of BM-MSCs initiated Notch signaling to maintain the immunomodulatory property of the sBM-DCs. The level of TGF-β is high in MSCs, either alone or coculture with HPCs medium. TGF-β plays a vital role in the proliferation and differentiation of sBM-DCs and inhibition of TGF-β reduce the number and increase the percentage of CD34, CD117, CD135 of generation cells. Thus, MSCs induced the regDCs from HPCs via the Notch signaling pathway and TGF-β synergistically. This study further broadens our understanding of the immunomodulatory mechanism and the potential therapeutic efficacy of MSCs.