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Zhong Q, Zhi J, Xu Y, Gao P, Feng S. Assessing driver distraction from in-vehicle information system: an on-road study exploring the effects of input modalities and secondary task types. Sci Rep 2024; 14:20289. [PMID: 39217232 PMCID: PMC11366028 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-71226-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/26/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
In-vehicle information system (IVIS) use is prevalent among young adults. However, their interaction with IVIS needs to be better understood. Therefore, an on-road study aims to explore the effects of input modalities and secondary task types on young drivers' secondary task performance, driving performance, and visual glance behavior. A 2 × 4 within-subject design was undertaken. The independent variables are input modalities (auditory-speech and visual-manual) and secondary task types (calls, music, navigation, and radio). The dependent variables include secondary task performance (task completion time, number of errors, and SUS), driving performance (average speed, number of lane departure warnings, and NASA-TLX), and visual glance behavior (average glance duration, number of glances, total glance duration, and number of glances over 1.6 s). The statistical analysis result showed that the main effect of input modalities is significant, with more distraction during visual-manual than auditory-speech. The main impact of secondary task types was also substantial across most metrics, aside from average speed and average glance duration. Navigation and music were the most distracting, followed by calls, and radio came in last. The distracting effect of input modalities is relatively stable and generally not moderated by the secondary task types, except radio tasks. The findings practically benefit the driver-friendly human-machine interface design, preventing IVIS-related distraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Zhong
- Department of Industrial Design, School of Design, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 611756, China.
| | - Jinyi Zhi
- Department of Industrial Design, School of Design, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 611756, China.
| | - Yongsheng Xu
- Department of Industrial Design, School of Design, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 611756, China
| | - Pengfei Gao
- Department of Industrial Design, School of Design, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 611756, China
| | - Shu Feng
- Department of Industrial Design, School of Design, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 611756, China
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Zhang T, Liu X, Zeng W, Tao D, Li G, Qu X. Input modality matters: A comparison of touch, speech, and gesture based in-vehicle interaction. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2023; 108:103958. [PMID: 36587503 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2022.103958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Innovative input devices are being available for in-vehicle information systems (IVISs). While they have the potential to provide enjoyable driving by enabling drivers to perform non-driving related tasks (NDRTs) in more natural ways, the associated distracting effects should be paid with more attention. The purpose of this exploratory study was to compare the effects of three novel input modalities, i.e., touchscreen-based interaction (TBI), speech-based interaction (SBI), and gesture-based interaction (GBI), on driving performance and driver visual behaviors. Moreover, we examined if the influence of different modalities would be moderated by the difficulty level of NDRTs. A total of 36 participants were invited to a simulated driving experiment where they were randomly assigned to one of the four groups (TBI, GBI, SBI or baseline) and completed three driving trials. The results showed that TBI led to the worse driving performance, as indicated by the significantly prolonged reaction time, reduced minimum time-to-collision, and increased variations in both longitudinal and lateral vehicle control. The deteriorated driving performance could be attributed, at least partially, to the intense visual demand induced by looking towards the touchscreen, as indicated by more and longer off-the-road glances. The adverse impacts of GBI were relatively smaller, but it still posed great crash risk by leading to a shorter minimum time-to-collision and less stable vehicle control compared to the baseline. SBI, although not completely equivalent to the baseline group, showed the minimum influence on driving and visual performance. Only very few interaction effects were found, suggesting that the effects of modality were quite robust across different NDRTs. It was concluded that SBI and GBI provided safer alternatives to in-vehicle interaction than TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingru Zhang
- Institute of Human Factors and Ergonomics, College of Mechatronics and Control Engineering, Shenzhen University, China
| | - Xing Liu
- Institute of Human Factors and Ergonomics, College of Mechatronics and Control Engineering, Shenzhen University, China
| | - Weisheng Zeng
- Institute of Human Factors and Ergonomics, College of Mechatronics and Control Engineering, Shenzhen University, China
| | - Da Tao
- Institute of Human Factors and Ergonomics, College of Mechatronics and Control Engineering, Shenzhen University, China
| | - Guofa Li
- College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Chongqing University, China
| | - Xingda Qu
- Institute of Human Factors and Ergonomics, College of Mechatronics and Control Engineering, Shenzhen University, China.
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Zhang F, Roberts SC. Factors affecting drivers' off-road glance behavior while interacting with in-vehicle voice interfaces. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2023; 179:106883. [PMID: 36356510 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2022.106883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In-vehicle voice-based interfaces have been massively embedded in modern vehicles as a countermeasure to visual-manual distractions. However, limited data are available regarding the actual visual demands imposed on the driver when interacting with such an interface. How those factors that are associated with the drivers themselves affect their visual behavior when interacting with an in-vehicle voice-based interface remains understudied. This study focused on investigating factors affecting drivers' off-road visual behavior while interacting with a voice-based interface. A secondary data analysis leveraging structural equation modeling was performed based on data collected from a large-scale field experiment wherein participants drove a vehicle on the highway and performed a series of tasks using an in-vehicle voice interface. The results indicate that while voice-based interfaces are designed to help reduce drivers' visual demands, drivers can still direct their eyes off the road for a prolonged period of time during the interaction and exhibit potentially risky visual behavior. In addition, individual-level factors can exert influence on drivers' off-road visual behavior in such a way that older drivers and drivers with higher trust in technologies are associated with more long eyes-off-road glances when interacting with a voice-based interface. To promote the general public's adoption of in-vehicle voice interfaces and support safe interactions, we recommend relevant research and system design consider drivers' trust in, perceptions, and previous usage of similar technologies, as well as their individual characteristics such as age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangda Zhang
- The Center for Injury Research and Policy, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA.
| | - Shannon C Roberts
- Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA.
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Li Z, Wang C, Fu R, Sun Q, Zhang H. What is the difference between perceived and actual risk of distracted driving? A field study on a real highway. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0231151. [PMID: 32240274 PMCID: PMC7117726 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0231151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Accepted: 03/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Distracted driving is a leading cause of traffic accidents. It is influenced by driver attitude toward secondary tasks; however, field-based studies on the effects of low-perceived-risk tasks on lateral driving have rarely been reported. A total of 17 experienced non-professional drivers were recruited to participate in two secondary tasks: a cognitive experiment (conversation) and a visual distraction experiment (observation of following vehicles), each representing low-perceived-risk secondary tasks. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to evaluate the effects of low-perceived-risk tasks on lateral driving performance. ANOVA results indicated that compared with baseline (no task) lateral performance, lane-keeping ability was enhanced during cognitive distractions. In the visual distraction experiment, more than 50% of the distractions required 1–2 s. Lane deviation and its growth rate increased with the duration of distraction. Compared with cognitive distraction, lane deviation increased significantly with visual distraction, and lane-keeping performance was seriously impaired. For low-perceived-risk tasks, visual distractions impaired driving safety more seriously, compared with cognitive distractions, suggesting that drivers misjudge the risks associated with visual tasks. These results can contribute to the design of advanced driving-assistance systems and improve professional driver programs, potentially reducing the frequency of traffic accidents caused by distracted driving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Li
- School of Automobile, Chang'an University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Chang Wang
- School of Automobile, Chang'an University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
- * E-mail:
| | - Rui Fu
- School of Automobile, Chang'an University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Qinyu Sun
- School of Automobile, Chang'an University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Hongjia Zhang
- School of Automobile, Chang'an University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
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Cvahte Ojstersek T, Topolsek D. Eye tracking use in researching driver distraction: A scientometric and qualitative literature review approach. J Eye Mov Res 2019; 12. [PMID: 33828732 PMCID: PMC7880134 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.12.3.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Many factors affect road safety, but research constantly shows that drivers are the major cause of critical situations that could potentially lead to a traffic accident in road traffic. Visual information is a crucial part of input information into the driving process; therefore, distractions of overt visual attention can potentially have a large impact on driving safety. Modern eye tracking technology enables researchers to gain precise insight into the direction and movement of a driver’s gaze during various distractions. As this is an evolving and currently very relevant field of road safety research, the present paper sets out to analyse the current state of the research field and the most relevant publications that use eye tracking for research of distractions to a driver’s visual attention. With the use of scientometrics and a qualitative review of the 139 identified publications that fit the inclusion criteria, the results revealed a currently expanding research field. The narrow research field is interdisciplinary in its core, as evidenced by the dispersion of publication sources and research variables. The main research gaps identified were performing research in real conditions, including a wider array of distractions, a larger number of participants, and increasing interdisciplinarity of the field with more author cooperation outside of their primary co-authorship networks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Darja Topolsek
- University of Maribor, Faculty of Logistics, Celje, Slovenia
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Hopkins K, Kass SJ, Blalock LD, Brill JC. Effectiveness of auditory and tactile crossmodal cues in a dual-task visual and auditory scenario. ERGONOMICS 2017; 60:692-700. [PMID: 27267493 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2016.1198495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we examined how spatially informative auditory and tactile cues affected participants' performance on a visual search task while they simultaneously performed a secondary auditory task. Visual search task performance was assessed via reaction time and accuracy. Tactile and auditory cues provided the approximate location of the visual target within the search display. The inclusion of tactile and auditory cues improved performance in comparison to the no-cue baseline conditions. In comparison to the no-cue conditions, both tactile and auditory cues resulted in faster response times in the visual search only (single task) and visual-auditory (dual-task) conditions. However, the effectiveness of auditory and tactile cueing for visual task accuracy was shown to be dependent on task-type condition. Crossmodal cueing remains a viable strategy for improving task performance without increasing attentional load within a singular sensory modality. Practitioner Summary: Crossmodal cueing with dual-task performance has not been widely explored, yet has practical applications. We examined the effects of auditory and tactile crossmodal cues on visual search performance, with and without a secondary auditory task. Tactile cues aided visual search accuracy when also engaged in a secondary auditory task, whereas auditory cues did not.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Hopkins
- a Department of Psychology , University of West Florida , Pensacola , FL , USA
| | - Steven J Kass
- a Department of Psychology , University of West Florida , Pensacola , FL , USA
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Mehler B, Kidd D, Reimer B, Reagan I, Dobres J, McCartt A. Multi-modal assessment of on-road demand of voice and manual phone calling and voice navigation entry across two embedded vehicle systems. ERGONOMICS 2016; 59:344-67. [PMID: 26269281 PMCID: PMC4917911 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2015.1081412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2014] [Accepted: 06/17/2015] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
One purpose of integrating voice interfaces into embedded vehicle systems is to reduce drivers' visual and manual distractions with 'infotainment' technologies. However, there is scant research on actual benefits in production vehicles or how different interface designs affect attentional demands. Driving performance, visual engagement, and indices of workload (heart rate, skin conductance, subjective ratings) were assessed in 80 drivers randomly assigned to drive a 2013 Chevrolet Equinox or Volvo XC60. The Chevrolet MyLink system allowed completing tasks with one voice command, while the Volvo Sensus required multiple commands to navigate the menu structure. When calling a phone contact, both voice systems reduced visual demand relative to the visual-manual interfaces, with reductions for drivers in the Equinox being greater. The Equinox 'one-shot' voice command showed advantages during contact calling but had significantly higher error rates than Sensus during destination address entry. For both secondary tasks, neither voice interface entirely eliminated visual demand. Practitioner Summary: The findings reinforce the observation that most, if not all, automotive auditory-vocal interfaces are multi-modal interfaces in which the full range of potential demands (auditory, vocal, visual, manipulative, cognitive, tactile, etc.) need to be considered in developing optimal implementations and evaluating drivers' interaction with the systems. Social Media: In-vehicle voice-interfaces can reduce visual demand but do not eliminate it and all types of demand need to be taken into account in a comprehensive evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce Mehler
- MIT AgeLab, New England University Transportation Center, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - David Kidd
- Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, Arlington, VA, USA
| | - Bryan Reimer
- MIT AgeLab, New England University Transportation Center, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Ian Reagan
- Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, Arlington, VA, USA
| | - Jonathan Dobres
- MIT AgeLab, New England University Transportation Center, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Anne McCartt
- Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, Arlington, VA, USA
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Development and Evaluation of Automotive Speech Interfaces: Useful Information from the Human Factors and the Related Literature. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1155/2013/924170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Drivers often use infotainment systems in motor vehicles, such as systems for navigation, music, and phones. However, operating visual-manual interfaces for these systems can distract drivers. Speech interfaces may be less distracting. To help designing easy-to-use speech interfaces, this paper identifies key speech interfaces (e.g., CHAT, Linguatronic, SYNC, Siri, and Google Voice), their features, and what was learned from evaluating them and other systems. Also included is information on key technical standards (e.g., ISO 9921, ITU P.800) and relevant design guidelines. This paper also describes relevant design and evaluation methods (e.g., Wizard of Oz) and how to make driving studies replicable (e.g., by referencing SAE J2944). Throughout the paper, there is discussion of linguistic terms (e.g., turn-taking) and principles (e.g., Grice’s Conversational Maxims) that provide a basis for describing user-device interactions and errors in evaluations.
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Lee JD, Roberts SC, Hoffman JD, Angell LS. Scrolling and driving: how an MP3 player and its aftermarket controller affect driving performance and visual behavior. HUMAN FACTORS 2012; 54:250-263. [PMID: 22624291 DOI: 10.1177/0018720811429562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to assess how scrolling through playlists on an MP3 player or its aftermarket controller affects driving performance and to examine how drivers adapt device use to driving demands. BACKGROUND Drivers use increasingly complex infotainment devices that can undermine driving performance. The goal activation hypothesis suggests that drivers might fail to compensate for these demands, particularly with long tasks and large search set sizes. METHOD A total of 50 participants searched for songs in playlists of varying lengths using either an MP3 player or an aftermarket controller while negotiating road segments with traffic and construction in a medium-fidelity driving simulator. RESULTS Searching through long playlists (580 songs) resulted in poor driving performance and required more long glances (longer than 2 s) to the device compared with other playlist lengths. The aftermarket controller also led to more long glances compared with the MP3 player. Drivers did not adequately adapt their behavior to roadway demand, as evident in their degraded driving performance. No significant performance differences were found between short playlists, the radio-tuning task, and the no-task condition. CONCLUSION Selecting songs from long playlists undermined driving performance, and drivers did not sufficiently adapt their use of the device to the roadway demands, consistent with the goal activation hypothesis. The aftermarket controller degraded rather than enhanced performance. APPLICATION Infotainment systems should support drivers in managing distraction. Aftermarket controllers can have the unintended effect of making devices carried into the car less compatible with driving.These results can motivate development of new interfaces as alternatives to scrolling lists.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Lee
- Cognitive Systems Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 53706, USA
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Mitsopoulos-Rubens E, Trotter MJ, Lenné MG. Effects on driving performance of interacting with an in-vehicle music player: a comparison of three interface layout concepts for information presentation. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2011; 42:583-591. [PMID: 20869694 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2010.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2009] [Revised: 07/09/2010] [Accepted: 08/02/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Interface design is an important factor in assessing the potential effects on safety of interacting with an in-vehicle information system while driving. In the current study, the layout of information on a visual display was manipulated to explore its effect on driving performance in the context of music selection. The comparative effects of an auditory-verbal (cognitive) task were also explored. The driving performance of 30 participants was assessed under both baseline and dual task conditions using the Lane Change Test. Concurrent completion of the music selection task with driving resulted in significant impairment to lateral driving performance (mean lane deviation and percentage of correct lane changes) relative to the baseline, and significantly greater mean lane deviation relative to the combined driving and the cognitive task condition. The magnitude of these effects on driving performance was independent of layout concept, although significant differences in subjective workload estimates and performance on the music selection task across layout concepts highlights that potential uncertainty regarding design use as conveyed through layout concept could be disadvantageous. The implications of these results for interface design and safety are discussed.
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Chan E, Pradhan AK, Pollatsek A, Knodler MA, Fisher DL. Are Driving Simulators Effective Tools for Evaluating Novice Drivers' Hazard Anticipation, Speed Management, and Attention Maintenance Skills. TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH. PART F, TRAFFIC PSYCHOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR 2010; 13:343-353. [PMID: 20729986 PMCID: PMC2923851 DOI: 10.1016/j.trf.2010.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Novice drivers (teen drivers with their solo license for six months or less) are at a greatly inflated risk of crashing. Post hoc analyses of police accident reports indicate that novice drivers fail to anticipate hazards, manage their speed, and maintain attention. These skills are much too broadly defined to be of much help in training. Recently, however, driving simulators have been used to identify those skills which differentiate the novice drivers from older, more experienced drivers in the areas of hazard anticipation and speed management. Below, we report an experiment on a driving simulator which compares novice and experienced drivers' performance in the third area believed to contribute especially heavily to crashes among novice drivers: attention to the forward roadway. The results indicate that novice drivers are much more willing to glance for long periods of time inside the vehicle than are experienced drivers. Interestingly, the results also indicate that both novice and experienced drivers spend equal amounts of time glancing at tasks external to the vehicle and in the periphery. Moreover, just as a program has been designed to train the scanning skills that clearly differentiate novice from experienced drivers, one might hope that a training program could be designed to improve the attention maintenance skills of novice drivers. We report on the initial piloting of just such a training program. Finally, we address a question that has long been debated in the literature: Do the results from driving simulators generalize to the real world? We argue that in the case of hazard anticipation, speed management, and attention maintenance the answer is yes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elsa Chan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003,
| | - Anuj K. Pradhan
- Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003,
| | | | - Michael A. Knodler
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003,
| | - Donald L. Fisher
- Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, Marston Hall 120D, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003,
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