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Sandmann G. Diversity and origin of carotenoid biosynthesis: its history of coevolution towards plant photosynthesis. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 232:479-493. [PMID: 34324713 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The development of photosynthesis was a highlight in the progression of bacteria. In addition to the photosystems with their structural proteins, the photosynthesis apparatus consists of different cofactors including essential carotenoids. Thus, the evolution of the carotenoid pathways in relation to the functionality of the resulting structures in photosynthesis is the focus of this review. Analysis of carotenoid pathway genes indicates early evolutionary roots in prokaryotes. The pathway complexity leading to a multitude of structures is a result of gene acquisition, including their functional modifications, emergence of novel genes and gene exchange between species. Along with the progression of photosynthesis, carotenoid pathways coevolved with photosynthesis according to their advancing functionality. Cyanobacteria, with their oxygenic photosynthesis, became a landmark for evolutionary events including carotenogenesis. Concurrent with endosymbiosis, the cyanobacterial carotenoid pathways were inherited into algal plastids. In the lineage leading to Chlorophyta and plants, carotenoids evolved to their prominent role in protection and regulation of light energy input as constituents of a highly efficient light-harvesting complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerhard Sandmann
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Goethe-University Frankfurt/M, Max von Laue Str. 9, Frankfurt, D-60438, Germany
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2
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Carotenoid Production in Escherichia coli: Case of Acyclic Carotenoids. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021. [PMID: 33783742 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-15-7360-6_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
Among isoprenoids, carotenoids were the first group of compounds which were synthesized from foreign genes in non-carotenogenic Escherichia coli as a heterologous host. A great variety of carotenoids have been shown to be produced in E. coli due to the introduction of combinations of carotenoid biosynthesis genes, which were isolated from carotenogenic organisms. Carotenoids that have been produced in E. coli are mostly cyclic carotenoids that retain carbon 40 (C40) basic structure, except for acyclic carotene lycopene. On the other hand, acyclic carotenoids, which can also be produced in E. coli, comprise a group of carotenoids with diverse chain lengths, i.e., with C20, C30, C40, or C50 basic skeleton. As for acyclic C30, C40, and C50 carotenoids, carotenogenic genes of bacterial origin were needed, while a cleavage dioxygenase gene of higher-plant origin was utilized for the synthesis of acyclic C20 carotenoids. The present chapter is a review on the biosynthesis of such diverse acyclic carotenoids at the gene level.
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Fournié M, Truan G. Multiplicity of carotene patterns derives from competition between phytoene desaturase diversification and biological environments. Sci Rep 2020; 10:21106. [PMID: 33273560 PMCID: PMC7713294 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-77876-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Phytoene desaturases catalyse from two to six desaturation reactions on phytoene, generating a large diversity of molecules that can then be cyclised and produce, depending on the organism, many different carotenoids. We constructed a phylogenetic tree of a subset of phytoene desaturases from the CrtI family for which functional data was available. We expressed in a bacterial system eight codon optimized CrtI enzymes from different clades. Analysis of the phytoene desaturation reactions on crude extracts showed that three CrtI enzymes can catalyse up to six desaturations, forming tetradehydrolycopene. Kinetic data generated using a subset of five purified enzymes demonstrate the existence of characteristic patterns of desaturated molecules associated with various CrtI clades. The kinetic data was also analysed using a classical Michaelis–Menten kinetic model, showing that variations in the reaction rates and binding constants could explain the various carotene patterns observed. Competition between lycopene cyclase and the phytoene desaturases modified the distribution between carotene intermediates when expressed in yeast in the context of the full β-carotene production pathway. Our results demonstrate that the desaturation patterns of carotene molecules in various biological environments cannot be fully inferred from phytoene desaturases classification but is governed both by evolutionary-linked variations in the desaturation rates and competition between desaturation and cyclisation steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathieu Fournié
- TBI, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, Toulouse, France.,Adisseo France S.A.S., 10 place du Général de Gaulle, 92160, Anthony, France.,Groupe Avril, 11 Rue de Monceau, 75378, Paris, Cedex 08, France
| | - Gilles Truan
- TBI, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, Toulouse, France.
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Liang N, Chen C, Wang Y, Ding MZ, Yao MD, Xiao WH, Yuan YJ. Exploring Catalysis Specificity of Phytoene Dehydrogenase CrtI in Carotenoid Synthesis. ACS Synth Biol 2020; 9:1753-1762. [PMID: 32579850 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.0c00128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Carotenoids, a variety of natural products, have significant pharmaceutical and commercial potential. Phytoene dehydrogenase (CrtI) is the rate-limit enzyme for carotenoid synthesis, whose catalysis specificity results in various carotenoids. However, the structural characteristics of CrtI for controlling the catalysis specificity on dehydrogenation steps are still unclear, which limited the development of CrtI function. Here we confirmed two mutation sites H136 and H453 in the mutant library of CrtI from Blakeslea trispora, which markedly regulated catalytic specificity. Interestingly, the sequence alignment features at H136 and H453 were consistent with the phylogenetic analysis of CrtI families. Subsequently, the functions of saturated mutants at H136 and H453 were clustered by principal component analysis (PCA) and k-means. According to the clustering results, diversiform mutants with specific dehydrogenation function provided important application value for carotenoid product customization. Meanwhile, this study also enriched the theory of enzyme evolution and guided the functional development of enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Liang
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Chen Chen
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Ying Wang
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Ming-Zhu Ding
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Ming-Dong Yao
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Wen-Hai Xiao
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Ying-Jin Yuan
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
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Jinendiran S, Dileep Kumar BS, Dahms HU, Arulanandam CD, Sivakumar N. Optimization of submerged fermentation process for improved production of β-carotene by Exiguobacterium acetylicum S01. Heliyon 2019; 5:e01730. [PMID: 31193511 PMCID: PMC6535579 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2019] [Revised: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Carotenoids are natural pigments with substantial applications in nutraceutical, pharmaceutical, and food industries. In this study, optimization of the fermentation process for enhancement of β-carotene and biomass production by Exiguobacterium acetylicum S01 was achieved by employing statistical designs including the Placket-Burman design (PBD) and response surface methodology (RSM). Among the seven variables investigated by two levels in PBD, glucose, peptone, pH and temperature were indicated as crucial variables (p < 0.0001) for β-carotene and biomass productivity. Response surface methodology was further applied to evaluate the optimal concentrations of these four variables for maximum β-carotene and biomass productivity. The optimized medium contained glucose 1.4 g/L, peptone 26.5 g/L, pH 8.5, and temperature 30 °C, respectively. A significant increase in β-carotene (40.32 ± 2.55 mg/L) and biomass (2.19 ± 0.10 g/L) productivities in E. acetylicum S01 were achieved by using RSM, which was 3.47-fold and 2.36-fold higher in the optimized medium compared to the un-optimized medium. Further, the optimum fermentation condition in the 5-L bioreactor was achieved a maximal β-carotene yield of 107.22 ± 5.78 mg/L within 96 h. Moreover, the expression levels of carotenoid biosynthetic genes (phytoene desaturase (CrtI) and phytoene synthase (CrtB)) were up-regulated (2.89-fold and 3.71-fold) in E. acetylicum under the optimized medium conditions. Overall, these results suggest that E. acetylicum S01 can be used as a promising microorganism for the commercial production of β-carotene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sekar Jinendiran
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, School of Biotechnology, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, 625021, India
| | - B S Dileep Kumar
- Agro-Processing and Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, 695019, India
| | - Hans-Uwe Dahms
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan.,Department of Marine Biotechnology and Bioresources, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, 80424, Taiwan
| | - Charli Deepak Arulanandam
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan
| | - Natesan Sivakumar
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, School of Biotechnology, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, 625021, India
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6
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Xu X, Tian L, Xu J, Xie C, Jiang L, Huang H. Analysis and expression of the carotenoid biosynthesis genes from Deinococcus wulumuqiensis R12 in engineered Escherichia coli. AMB Express 2018; 8:94. [PMID: 29860613 PMCID: PMC5984946 DOI: 10.1186/s13568-018-0624-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Deinococcus wulumuqiensis R12 is a red-pigmented extremophilic microorganism with powerful antioxidant properties that was isolated from radiation-contaminated soil in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China. The key carotenoid biosynthesis genes, crtE, crtB and crtI, which are related to the cells’ antioxidant defense, were identified in the sequenced genome of R12 and analyzed. In order to improve the carotenoid yield in engineered Escherichia coli, the origin of carotenoid biosynthesis genes was discussed, and a strain containing the R12 carotenoid biosynthesis genes was constructed to produce lycopene, an important intermediate in carotenoid metabolism. The gene order and fermentation conditions, including the culture medium, temperature, and light, were optimized to obtain a genetically engineered strain with a high lycopene production capacity. The highest lycopene content was 688 mg L−1 in strain IEB, which corresponds to a 2.2-fold improvement over the original recombinant strain EBI.
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Multiple transformation with the crtYB gene of the limiting enzyme increased carotenoid synthesis and generated novel derivatives in Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous. Arch Biochem Biophys 2014; 545:141-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2014.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Furubayashi M, Li L, Katabami A, Saito K, Umeno D. Construction of carotenoid biosynthetic pathways using squalene synthase. FEBS Lett 2013; 588:436-42. [PMID: 24333579 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2013.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2013] [Revised: 11/28/2013] [Accepted: 12/03/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The first committed steps of steroid/hopanoid pathways involve squalene synthase (SQS). Here, we report the Escherichia coli production of diaponeurosporene and diapolycopene, yellow C30 carotenoid pigments, by expressing human SQS and Staphylococcus aureus dehydrosqualene (C30 carotenoid) desaturase (CrtN). We suggest that the carotenoid pigments are synthesized mainly via the desaturation of squalene rather than the direct synthesis of dehydrosqualene through the non-reductive condensation of prenyl diphosphate precursors, indicating the possible existence of a "squalene route" and a "lycopersene route" for C30 and C40 carotenoids, respectively. Additionally, this finding yields a new method of colorimetric screening for the cellular activity of squalene synthases, which are major targets for cholesterol-lowering drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maiko Furubayashi
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology, Chiba University, 1-33, Yayoi-cho, Inage, Chiba 263-8522, Japan
| | - Ling Li
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology, Chiba University, 1-33, Yayoi-cho, Inage, Chiba 263-8522, Japan
| | - Akinori Katabami
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology, Chiba University, 1-33, Yayoi-cho, Inage, Chiba 263-8522, Japan
| | - Kyoichi Saito
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology, Chiba University, 1-33, Yayoi-cho, Inage, Chiba 263-8522, Japan
| | - Daisuke Umeno
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology, Chiba University, 1-33, Yayoi-cho, Inage, Chiba 263-8522, Japan; Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology (PRESTO), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), 4-1-8 Honcho, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan.
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9
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Breitenbach J, Gerjets T, Sandmann G. Catalytic properties and reaction mechanism of the CrtO carotenoid ketolase from the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Arch Biochem Biophys 2012; 529:86-91. [PMID: 23220023 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2012.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2012] [Revised: 11/07/2012] [Accepted: 11/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
CrtW and CrtO are two distinct non-homologous β-carotene ketolases catalyzing the formation of echinenone and canthaxanthin. CrtO belongs to the CrtI family which comprises carotene desaturases and carotenoid oxidases. The CrtO protein from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 has been heterologously expressed, extracted and purified. Substrate specificity has been determined in vitro. The enzyme from Synechocystis is basically a mono ketolase. Nevertheless, small amounts of diketo canthaxanthin can be formed. The poor diketolation reaction could be explained by the low relative turnover numbers for the mono keto echinenone. Also other carotenoids with an unsubstituted β-ionone ring were utilized with low conversion rates by CrtO regardless of the substitutions at the other end of the molecule. The CrtO ketolase was independent of oxygen and utilized an oxidized quinone as co-factor. In common to CrtI-type desaturases, the first catalytic step involved hydride transfer to the quinone. The stabilization reaction of the resulting carbo cation was a reaction with OH(-) forming a hydroxy group. Finally, the keto group resulted from two subsequent hydroxylations at the same C-atom and water elimination. This reaction mechanism was confirmed by in vitro conversion of the postulated hydroxy intermediates and by their enrichment and identification as trace intermediates during ketolation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Breitenbach
- Biosynthesis Group, Molecular Biosciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, Max-von-Laue Str. 9, D-60438 Frankfurt, Germany
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10
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High-level production of the industrial product lycopene by the photosynthetic bacterium Rhodospirillum rubrum. Appl Environ Microbiol 2012; 78:7205-15. [PMID: 22865070 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00545-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The biosynthesis of the major carotenoid spirilloxanthin by the purple nonsulfur bacterium Rhodospirillum rubrum is thought to occur via a linear pathway proceeding through phytoene and, later, lycopene as intermediates. This assumption is based solely on early chemical evidence (B. H. Davies, Biochem. J. 116:93-99, 1970). In most purple bacteria, the desaturation of phytoene, catalyzed by the enzyme phytoene desaturase (CrtI), leads to neurosporene, involving only three dehydrogenation steps and not four as in the case of lycopene. We show here that the chromosomal insertion of a kanamycin resistance cassette into the crtC-crtD region of the partial carotenoid gene cluster, whose gene products are responsible for the downstream processing of lycopene, leads to the accumulation of the latter as the major carotenoid. We provide spectroscopic and biochemical evidence that in vivo, lycopene is incorporated into the light-harvesting complex 1 as efficiently as the methoxylated carotenoids spirilloxanthin (in the wild type) and 3,4,3',4'-tetrahydrospirilloxanthin (in a crtD mutant), both under semiaerobic, chemoheterotrophic, and photosynthetic, anaerobic conditions. Quantitative growth experiments conducted in dark, semiaerobic conditions, using a growth medium for high cell density and high intracellular membrane levels, which are suitable for the conventional industrial production in the absence of light, yielded lycopene at up to 2 mg/g (dry weight) of cells or up to 15 mg/liter of culture. These values are comparable to those of many previously described Escherichia coli strains engineered for lycopene production. This study provides the first genetic proof that the R. rubrum CrtI produces lycopene exclusively as an end product.
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Zhang J, Lu L, Yin L, Xie S, Xiao M. Carotenogenesis gene cluster and phytoene desaturase catalyzing both three- and four-step desaturations from Rhodobacter azotoformans. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2012; 333:138-45. [PMID: 22640029 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2012.02604.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2012] [Revised: 05/22/2012] [Accepted: 05/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
A carotenogenesis gene cluster from the purple nonsulfur photosynthetic bacterium Rhodobacter azotoformans CGMCC 6086 was cloned. A total of eight carotenogenesis genes ( crtA , crtI , crtB , tspO , crtC , crtD , crtE , and crtF ) were located in two separate regions within the genome, a 4.9 kb region containing four clustered genes of crtAIB - tspO and a 5.3 kb region containing four clustered genes of crtCDEF . The organization was unusual for a carotenogenesis gene cluster in purple photosynthetic bacteria. A gene encoding phytoene desaturase ( CrtI ) from Rba. azotoformans was expressed in Escherichia coli. The recombinant CrtI could catalyze both three- and four-step desaturations of phytoene to produce neurosporene and lycopene, and the relative contents of neurosporene and lycopene formed by CrtI were approximately 23% and 75%, respectively. Even small amounts of five-step desaturated 3,4-didehydrolycopene could be produced by CrtI . This product pattern was novel because CrtI produced only neurosporene leading to spheroidene pathway in the cells of Rba. azotoformans. In the in vitro reaction, the relative content of lycopene in desaturated products increased from 19.6% to 62.5% when phytoene reduced from 2.6 to 0.13 μM. The results revealed that the product pattern of CrtI might be affected by the kinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinhua Zhang
- State Key Lab of Microbial Technology and National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Jinan, China
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Stickforth P, Sandmann G. Structural and kinetics properties of a mutated phytoene desaturase from Rubrivivax gelatinosus with modified product specificity. Arch Biochem Biophys 2011; 505:118-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2010.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2010] [Revised: 09/24/2010] [Accepted: 09/24/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Albermann C. High versus low level expression of the lycopene biosynthesis genes from Pantoea ananatis in Escherichia coli. Biotechnol Lett 2010; 33:313-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s10529-010-0422-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2010] [Accepted: 09/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Pathway evolution by horizontal transfer and positive selection is accommodated by relaxed negative selection upon upstream pathway genes in purple bacterial carotenoid biosynthesis. J Bacteriol 2009; 191:7500-8. [PMID: 19820094 DOI: 10.1128/jb.01060-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Horizontal gene transfer and selection are major forces driving microbial evolution. However, interactions between them are rarely studied. Phylogenetic analyses of purple bacterial carotenoid biosynthesis genes suggest two lineages: one producing spheroidenone and the other producing spirilloxanthin. Of the latter lineage, Rubrivivax gelatinosus S1 and Hoeflea phototrophica DFL-43 also or instead produce spheroidenone. Evolution of the spheroidenone pathway from that producing spirilloxanthin theoretically requires changes in the substrate specificity of upstream pathway enzymes and acquisition of a terminal ketolase (CrtA). In R. gelatinosus and likely also in H. phototrophica, CrtA was acquired from the Bacteroidetes, in which it functions as a hydroxylase. Estimation of nonsynonymous and synonymous mutations using several pairwise methods indicated positive selection upon both genes, consistent with their functional changes from hydroxylases to ketolases. Relaxed negative selection upon all other carotenoid biosynthetic genes in these organisms was also apparent, likely facilitating changes in their substrate specificities. Furthermore, all genes responsible for terminal carotenoid biosynthetic pathway steps were under reduced negative selection compared to those known to govern biosynthetic pathway specificity. Horizontal transfer of crtA into R. gelatinosus and H. phototrophica has therefore likely been promoted by (i) the apparent selective advantage of spheroidenone production relative to spirilloxanthin production, (ii) reduced negative selection upon other carotenoid biosynthetic genes, facilitating changes in their substrate specificities, and (iii) preexisting low enzyme substrate specificities due to relaxed negative selection. These results highlight the importance and complexity of selection acting upon both a horizontally transferred gene and the biochemical network into which it is integrating.
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Gerjets T, Steiger S, Sandmann G. Catalytic properties of the expressed acyclic carotenoid 2-ketolases from Rhodobacter capsulatus and Rubrivivax gelatinosus. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2009; 1791:125-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2008.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2008] [Revised: 12/01/2008] [Accepted: 12/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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16
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Sandmann G. Evolution of carotene desaturation: the complication of a simple pathway. Arch Biochem Biophys 2008; 483:169-74. [PMID: 18948076 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2008.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2008] [Revised: 10/02/2008] [Accepted: 10/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In a series of desaturation reactions, the trienoic structures of phytoene and diapophytoene are extended to a maximum of 15 or 11 conjugated double bonds, respectively. After the cloning of several genes from bacteria and eukaryotes, the desaturation reactions were first analyzed in a heterologous host by functional genetic complementation. In addition, different desaturases were heterologously expressed and the reactions studied in vitro. This revealed that in archaea, non-photosynthetic prokaryotes and fungi the desaturases differ significantly from convergently evolved desaturases in cyanobacteria, Chlorobaculum (old name Chlorobium) species and eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms including plants. Detailed analysis of the desaturation reactions including the determination of the substrates converted by the enzymes, the intermediates and the products formed in the reactions revealed the bacterial all-trans desaturation pathway catalyzed by a single enzyme and the cyanobacterial/plant type poly-cis desaturation pathway which involves two closely related desaturases. This indicates that in the course of evolution of carotenogenesis from bacteria via cyanobacteria to plants, the simple situation of one enzyme for the entire reaction sequence from phytoene to all-trans lycopene changed to a more complex process. Three individual enzymes, newly acquired phytoene and zeta-carotene desaturases, as well as a carotene isomerase which is phylogenetically related to CrtI are involved. Only the CrtI-type enzymes seem to have the property to catalyze cis to trans conversion of carotenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerhard Sandmann
- Biosynthesis Group, Molecular Biosciences, J.W. Goethe Universitaet, Biocampus 213, P.O. Box 111932, D-60054 Frankfurt, Germany.
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Maresca JA, Graham JE, Bryant DA. The biochemical basis for structural diversity in the carotenoids of chlorophototrophic bacteria. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2008; 97:121-40. [PMID: 18535920 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-008-9312-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2008] [Accepted: 05/14/2008] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Ongoing work has led to the identification of most of the biochemical steps in carotenoid biosynthesis in chlorophototrophic bacteria. In carotenogenesis, a relatively small number of modifications leads to a great diversity of carotenoid structures. This review examines the individual steps in the pathway, discusses how each contributes to structural diversity among carotenoids, and summarizes recent progress in elucidating the biosynthetic pathways for carotenoids in chlorophototrophs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia A Maresca
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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