Development and evaluation of a diffusive gradients in a thin film technique for measuring ammonium in freshwaters

Restoration of benthic macrofauna promotes biogeochemical remediation of hostile sediments; An in situ transplantation experiment in a eutrophic estuarine-hypersaline lagoon system

Estuarine ecosystems have very high ecological and economic value, and also act as a buffer for coastal oceans by processing nutrient inputs from terrestrial sources. However, ongoing pressures from increased urbanisation and agriculture, overlaid by climate change, has reduced inflows and increased nutrient loads that challenge the health and buffering capacity of these ecosystems. This study aimed to investigate whether restoring the bioturbating activity of Simplisetia aequisetis (Polychaeta: Nereididae) and other macrofauna could improve biogeochemical conditions in 'hostile' (i.e. hypersaline, sulfide-rich) sediments. To achieve this aim, we conducted an in situ experiment in the Coorong estuarine-lagoon ecosystem, translocating hostile hypersaline sediments, devoid of bioturbating macrofauna, to a 'healthy' (lower salinity) location where macrobenthic fauna naturally occur, and manipulating the S. aequisetis density in the sediments. Porewater, solid-phase, and diffusive equilibrium and diffusive gradient in thin-films (DET/DGT) measurements showed that bioturbation by macrobenthic fauna significantly influenced sediment biogeochemistry and remediated hostile conditions in sediment within a short time (four weeks) irrespective of S. aequisetis density. Bioturbation promoted sediment oxygenation, while salinity and the concentrations of total organic carbon and porewater sulfide, ammonium, and phosphate all decreased over time at all sediment depths. This research highlights the importance of macrobenthic communities and their functional traits for improving sediment conditions, promoting resilience to eutrophication, providing a nature-based remediation option, and in general ensuring healthy functioning of estuarine ecosystems.

Validation and Assessment of Diffusive Gradients in Thin-Films (DGT) Technique for Measuring Nutrients in Taihu Lake Water with Algae Bloom

DGT (diffusive gradients in thin films) technique has been developed for measuring nitrogen in freshwaters and applied to assess the bioavailability of phosphorus in soils/sediments. These two elements are the main nutrients causing algae bloom, but DGT has never been used in the field water conditions with algae bloom. In our study, a pair of DGT devices were used in comparison with grab sampling to characterize the performance of this technique to measure labile NO₃-N, NH₄-N, and PO₄-P concentrations in algae-cultivated Taihu Lake water. The results showed that DGT measurement was highly affected by algae bloom and the environmental conditions using the current assemblies, especially for NH₄-N measurement. For in situ measurement of nutrients in the real environment, an improvement to the DGT technique is required. The comprehensive assessment of the level of eutrophication needs to consider a variety of environmental factors rather than just the concentration of nutrients.

Monitoring of ammonia in marine waters using a passive sampler with biofouling resistance and neural network-based calibration

A biofouling resistant passive sampler for ammonia, where the semi-permeable barrier is a microporous hydrophobic gas-diffusion membrane, has been developed for the first time and successfully applied to determine the time-weighted average concentration of ammonia in estuarine and coastal waters for 7 days. Strategies to control biofouling of the membrane were investigated by covering it with either a copper mesh or a silver nanoparticle functionalised cotton mesh, with the former approach showing better performance. The effects of temperature, pH and salinity on the accumulation of ammonia in the newly developed passive sampler were studied and the first two parameters were found to influence it significantly. A universal calibration model for the passive sampler was developed using the Group Method Data Handling algorithm based on seawater samples spiked with known concentrations of total ammonia under conditions ranging from 10 to 30 °C, pH 7.8 to 8.2 and salinity 20 to 35. The newly developed passive sampler is affordable, user-friendly, reusable, sensitive, and can be used to detect concentrations lower than the recently proposed guideline value of 160 μg total NH₃-N L^-1, for a 99% species protection level, with the lowest concentration measured at 17 nM molecular NH₃ (i.e., 8 μg total NH₃-N L^-1 at pH 8.0 and 20 °C). It was deployed at four field sites in the coastal waters of Nerm (Port Phillip Bay), Victoria, Australia. Good agreement was found between molecular ammonia concentrations obtained with passive and discrete grab sampling methods (relative difference, - 12% to - 19%).

Sampling Rate of Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler (POCIS): Influence Factors and Calibration Methods

As a passive sampling device, the polar organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS) has the characteristics of simple operation, safety, and reliability for assessing the occurrence and risk of persistent and emerging trace organic pollutants. The POCIS, allowing for the determination of time-weighted average (TWA) concentration of polar organic chemicals, exhibits good application prospects in aquatic environments. Before deploying the device in water, the sampling rate (Rs), which is a key parameter for characterizing pollutant enrichment, should be determined and calibrated accurately. However, the Rs values strongly depend on experimental hydrodynamic conditions. This paper provides an overview of the current situation of the POCIS for environmental monitoring of organic pollutants in an aquatic system. The principle and theory of the POCIS are outlined. In particular, the effect factors such as the ambient conditions, pollutant properties, and device features on the Rs are analyzed in detail from aspects of impact dependence and mechanisms. The calibration methods of the Rs under laboratory and in situ conditions are summarized. This review offers supplementary information on comprehensive understanding of mechanism and application of the POCIS. Nevertheless, the Rs were impacted by a combined effect of solute–sorbent–membrane–solution, and the influence extent of each variable was still unclear. On this basis, the ongoing challenges are proposed for the future application of the POCIS in the actual environment, for instance, the need for this device to be improved in terms of quantitative methods for more accurate measurement of the Rs.

A new DGT technique comprised in a hybrid sensor for the simultaneous measurement of ammonium, nitrate, phosphorus and dissolved oxygen

A new diffusive gradients in thin films technique (ZrO-AT DGT) with zirconium oxide, A-62 MP and T-42H resins containing in a single binding gel was developed for simultaneous measurement of nitrate (NO₃-N), ammonium (NH₄-N) and phosphate (PO₄-P). The DGT uptake was found to be independent of pH variation from 3.2-8.7. Ionic strengths below 5, 10 and 750 mmol·L^-1 NaCl did not affect DGT uptake of NH₄-N, NO₃-N and PO₄-P, respectively. This new DGT was deployed in natural freshwater environments, with in situ measurements of the three nutrients found to be accurate. It ensured that rinsing the exposed surface of the DGT device at 3-day intervals can prevent biofouling. Additionally, a hybrid sensor comprising the novel DGT binding layer overlying an O₂ planar optrode was tested in sediments to evaluate the dynamics of O₂ and the three nutrients. Results showed that PO₄-P and NO₃-N fluxes decreased while fluxes of NH₄-N increased under aerobic conditions. Nearly simultaneous variation in O₂ and NO₃-N was observed at the sediment-water interface (SWI) and transformation of NO₃-N and PO₄-P was found to be sensitively influenced by O₂ dynamics.

Effects of a nitrification inhibitor on nitrogen species in the soil and the yield and phosphorus uptake of maize

Phosphorus (P) resource availability is declining and the efficiency of applied nutrients in agricultural soils is becoming increasingly important. This is especially true for P fertilizers from recycled materials, which often have low plant availability. Specific co-fertilization with ammonium can enhance P plant availability in soils amended with these P fertilizers, and thus the yield of plants. To investigate this effect, we performed a pot experiment with maize in slightly acidic soil (pH 6.9) with one water-soluble (triple superphosphate [TSP]) and two water-insoluble (sewage sludge-based and hyperphosphate [Hyp]) P fertilizers and an ammonium sulfate nitrate with or without a nitrification inhibitor (NI). The dry matter yield of maize was significantly increased by the NI with the Hyp (from 14.7 to 21.5 g/pot) and TSP (from 40.0 to 45.4 g/pot) treatments. Furthermore, P uptake was slightly increased in all three P treatments with the NI, but not significantly. Olsen-P extraction and P K-edge micro-X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy showed that apatite-P of the water-insoluble P fertilizers mobilized during the plant growth period. In addition, novel nitrogen (N) K-edge micro-XANES spectroscopy and the Mogilevkina method showed that the application of an NI increased the fixation of ammonium in detectable hot spots in the soil. Thus, the delay in the nitrification process by the NI and the possible slow-release of temporarily fixed ammonium in the soil resulted in a high amount of plant available ammonium in the soil solution. This development probably decreases the rhizosphere pH due to release of H⁺ by plants during ammonium uptake, which mobilizes phosphorus in the amended soil and increases the dry matter yield of maize. This is especially important for water-insoluble apatite-based P fertilizers (conventional and recycled), which tend to have poor plant availability.

Comparison of DET, DGT and conventional porewater extractions for determining nutrient profiles and cycling in stream sediments

Determining inorganic nutrient profiles to support understanding of nitrogen transformations in stream sediments is challenging, due to nitrification and denitrification being confined to particular conditions in potentially heterogeneous sediment influenced by benthic microalgae, rooted aquatic plants and/or diel light cycles. The diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) and diffusive equilibration in thin films (DET) techniques allow in situ determination of porewater concentration profiles, and distributions for some solutes. In this study, DGT, DET and conventional porewater extraction (sectioning and centrifugation) methods were compared for ammonium and nitrate in stream sediments under light and dark conditions. Two-dimensional distributions of Fe(ii) and PO4-P were also provided to indicate the degree of spatial and temporal heterogeneity in sediment porewater, which can explain the sources and sinks of ammonium at various depths in the sediments. Although the conventional porewater extraction method consistently measured higher NH4-N concentrations than the DGT and DET techniques, the study showed that the DET measurements were the most reliable indicator of porewater NH4-N concentrations, with the DGT data being usefully supplementary. However, a large proportion of the NO3-N concentrations measured by DGT and DET were close to or below the method detection limits. Therefore, further development of these techniques is required to reduce the blanks and detection limits to allow natural low sediment porewater NO3-N concentrations to be accurately monitored using DGT and DET. The study indicated that benthic microalgae had direct and indirect influences on porewater nutrient distributions over light-dark cycles. Overall, DGT and DET techniques can be useful for monitoring porewater nutrient concentrations and profiles and for determining how biological processes drive changes in sediment nutrient concentrations and distributions.

Online Conductimetric Flow-Through Analyzer Based on Membrane Diffusion for Ammonia Control in Wastewater Treatment Process

Ammonia is a necessary monitoring parameter that should be controlled within an optimum range in the whole process of wastewater treatment and recycling, but few reliable real-time monitoring technologies are available currently under such harsh water conditions. This study proposes a continuous conductometric flow-through analyzer for ammonia monitoring (CFAA) in the wastewater treatment process. It is developed based on the gas diffusion mechanisms, and the proposed analytical principle has been validated in which the real-time conductivity increment rate is linearly proportional to the real-time ammonia concentration in the sample. This method could be generally applicable in monitoring a wide ammonia concentration range (10.2 μg L^-1 to 500 mg L^-1), and it is capable of achieving long-term ammonia monitoring by periodic renewal of the receiving solution. The potential impact factors and corresponding calibration principles are also developed to avoid tedious ongoing calibration. The field application results demonstrate that CFAA can effectively and directly achieve real-time and average ammoniacal nitrogen monitoring at different treatment stages regardless of the complexity of wastewater, not requiring any sample pretreatment. Compared with other ammonia online monitoring technologies, the proposed CFAA shows remarkable advantages in high reliability, durability, and accuracy, especially under severe monitoring condition. It can be a useful monitoring tool for continuous ammonia control in the wastewater treatment process.

In situ measurement of estrogenic activity in various aquatic systems using organic diffusive gradients in thin-film coupled with ERE-CALUX bioassay

Organic-diffusive gradients in thin-film samplers (o-DGT), were developed and applied for accumulation of estrogen and estrogen-like compounds on a XAD18 resin and deployed in situ in the effluents of Beijing Gaobeidian Wastewater Treatment Plant (GWWTP) and Brussels North Wastewater Treatment Plant as well as in several aquatic systems in Belgium, including the Zenne River, the Belgian Oostende Harbor and the North Sea. Estrogenic compounds accumulate on the XAD18 resin and the estrogenic activity of the resin extract was measured with the Estrogen Responsive Elements-Chemically Activated LUciferase gene eXpression (ERE-CALUX) bioassay. With this result and by applying Fick's diffusion law, it is possible to calculate the estrogenic activity in the aquatic system, if the diffusion boundary layer (DBL) is known or negligible compared to the hydrogel diffusive layer thickness. The DBL thickness in our study varied from 0.010 to 0.023 cm and ignoring the DBL thickness would for instance, underestimate the estrogenic activity by 10-20%. Estrogenic activities in the secondary effluent of GWWTP were the highest (29 ± 4 ng E2-equivalents L^-1), while the lowest level was found at the Belgian Oostende Harbor (0.05 ± 0.01 ng E2-equivalents L^-1). Comparable estrogenic activities in water samples measured by o-DGT and grab sampling were obtained, confirming that o-DGT can be efficiently used in various aquatic systems. The advantage of our sampling and measuring method is that very low, time averaged estrogenic activities can be determined, with a minimum of sample treatment. The risk of sample contamination is very low as well as the cost of the whole analytical procedure.

Zirconium metal organic frameworks-based DGT technique for in situ measurement of dissolved reactive phosphorus in waters

In an effort to provide early warnings for the occurrence of eutrophication, it is highly desirable to develop an accurate and efficient technique to ensure continuous monitoring of dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP) in the aquatic environment from the viewpoint of environmental management. Herein, a new diffusive gradient in thin film (DGT) technique was developed and evaluated for in situ measurement of DRP in waters, in which Zr-based metal organic frameworks (MOFs, UiO-66) were utilized as aqueous binding agent (abbreviated as UiO-66 DGT). As expected, the UiO-66 DGT demonstrated high uptake capacity towards phosphorus (20.8 μg P cm^-2). Meanwhile, an excellent linearity between the accumulated DRP mass and deployment time over 5 d (R² = 0.996) was obtained regardless of high or low phosphate solution. In addition, effective diffusion coefficients (D) of DRP increased exponentially with increasing ionic strengths (R² = 0.99). Based on the rectified D, the performance of the UiO-66 DGT was independent of solution pH (6.5-8.5) and ionic strengths (ranging from 0.01 to 100 mmol L^-1). Furthermore, field deployments of the UiO-66 DGT were undertaken in a natural eutrophic lake (Lake Chaohu, China). It was noteworthy that DRP could be continually accumulated by the UiO-66 DGT for more than 14 d and good agreements were obtained between the concentrations measured by DGT (C_DGT) and those by ex situ chemical extraction method in solution (C_sol), as reflected by C_DGT/C_sol of 0.9-1.1. In situ determination of DRP speciation was also carried out at different sites across Lake Chaohu. Overall, this study contributed to a better constructing of liquid binding phase DGT for the measurement of DRP in waters, facilitating the widespread application of the UiO-66 DGT as a routine monitoring technique and for large-scale environmental analysis.

Evaluation of the DGT technique for selective measurement of aluminium and trace metal concentrations in an acid drainage-impacted coastal waterway

The performance of DGT-Chelex, DGT-Metsorb and DGT-MBL (Chelex-Metsorb mixed binding layer) with open and restricted diffusive layers for trace metal (Al, Cd, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn) and oxyanion (As, Mo, Sb, V) measurements, was evaluated in four natural waters with different pH (range 3.29-7.81). In moderately acidic (pH ≈ 5) and circumneutral (pH ≈ 6.3) waters, all three binding layers measured relatively similar concentrations of Al, while in more alkaline waters (pH ≈ 8) DGT-MBL measured higher concentrations than the other two binding layers. The measurements of DGT-Chelex and DGT-MBL for Co, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn, and DGT-Metsorb and DGT-MBL for As, Sb and V were within 82-119% and not statistically different (p > 0.05) over the pH range 5-8. Mn measurements by DGT-Chelex and DGT-MBL were quite similar (95%) at pH 6.3, while DGT-MBL measured higher concentrations than DGT-Chelex at other pHs. The ratios of measured concentrations with different diffusive layers (C_restricted/C_open) were between 0.78 and 1.12 for all binding layers and no statistical differences (p > 0.05) were observed, except for Al at pH 7.81 and Cu at pH 6.28. DGT-MBL was comparable to DGT-Chelex for the measurement of most trace metals, and to DGT-Metsorb for the measurement of most oxyanions, over the pH range 5.05-7.81. Overall, DGT-MBL is superior to the other tested binding layers because it can simultaneously measure cations and anions, and accurately measure dissolved Al, across the greatest range of environmental conditions.

"Diffusive Gradients in Thin Films" Techniques Provide Representative Time-Weighted Average Measurements of Inorganic Nutrients in Dynamic Freshwater Systems

Nutrient concentrations in freshwater are highly variable over time, with changes driven by weather events, anthropogenic sources, modifications to catchment hydrology or habitats, and internal biogeochemical processes. Measuring infrequently collected grab samples is unlikely to adequately represent nutrient concentrations in such dynamic systems. In contrast, in situ passive sampling techniques, such as the "diffusive gradients in thin films" (DGT) technique, provide time-weighted average analyte concentrations over the entire deployment time. A pair of recently developed DGT techniques for nitrate (A520E-DGT) and ammonium (PrCH-DGT), as well as the Metsorb-DGT technique for phosphate, were used to monitor inorganic nutrients in different freshwater systems (i.e., streams and wetlands) with a range of environmental values and that were affected by different catchment types. Measurements of grab samples collected frequently (1-2 times daily, 8-10 a.m. and 2-4 p.m.) showed that concentrations of NH₄-N and NO₃-N changed dramatically in most of the studied freshwater systems over short time scales, while there were only relatively small fluctuations in PO₄-P. The DGT measurements were highly representative in comparison with the average nutrient concentrations obtained from daily grab samples over short-term (24 h) and long-term (72 h) deployments. The ratios of DGT-labile concentrations to the average concentrations from grab samples were between 1.00 and 1.12 over the studied deployment periods. The results of this study confirmed that DGT measurements provided a reliable and robust method for monitoring NH₄-N, NO₃-N, and PO₄-P in a diverse range of dynamic freshwater systems.

Determining time-weighted average concentrations of nitrate and ammonium in freshwaters using DGT with ion exchange membrane-based binding layers

Commercially-available AMI-7001 anion exchange and CMI-7000 cation exchange membranes were utilised as binding layers for DGT measurements of NO₃-N and NH₄-N in freshwaters. These ion exchange membranes are easier to prepare and handle than DGT binding layers consisting of hydrogels cast with ion exchange resins. The membranes showed good uptake and elution efficiencies for both NO₃-N and NH₄-N. The membrane-based DGTs are suitable for pH 3.5-8.5 and ionic strength ranges (0.0001-0.014 and 0.0003-0.012 mol L^-1 as NaCl for the AMI-7001 and CMI-7000 membrane, respectively) typical of most natural freshwaters. The binding membranes had high intrinsic binding capacities for NO₃-N and NH₄-N of 911 ± 88 μg and 3512 ± 51 μg, respectively. Interferences from the major competing ions for membrane-based DGTs are similar to DGTs employing resin-based binding layers but with slightly different selectivity. This different selectivity means that the two DGT types can be used in different types of freshwaters. The laboratory and field experiments demonstrated that AMI-DGT and CMI-DGT can be an alternative to A520E-DGT and PrCH-DGT for measuring NO₃-N and NH₄-N, respectively, as (i) membrane-based DGT have a consistent composition, (ii) avoid the use of toxic chemicals, (iii) provided highly representative results (C_DGT : C_SOLN between 0.81 and 1.3), and (iv) agreed with resin-based DGTs to within 85-120%.

In situ speciation of dissolved inorganic antimony in surface waters and sediment porewaters: development of a thiol-based diffusive gradients in thin films technique for Sb(III)

Antimony is a priority environmental contaminant typically present as either the trivalent (Sb(III)) or the pentavalent (Sb(V)) oxidation state in aquatic systems. Both the toxicity and mobility of antimony are affected by its speciation, and thus the accurate measurement of antimony speciation is essential for investigating the behaviour of this contaminant in aquatic systems. Here we present a diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) technique, which utilises a binding layer containing a thiol-based adsorbent (3-mercaptopropyl functionalised silica gel), for the selective measurement of Sb(III) in surface waters and sediment porewaters. We also evaluated the Metsorb DGT technique, which has been previously reported to accurately measure Sb(V), for its ability to accumulate Sb(III) and thus allow the measurement of total inorganic antimony. Both the mercapto-silica and Metsorb DGT techniques showed a high affinity for Sb(III), with uptake efficiencies >97%. Elution efficiencies of 86.9 ± 2.6% and 88.1 ± 1.2% were obtained for mercapto-silica and Metsorb, respectively, with 1 mol L(-1) H2O2 in 1 mol L(-1) NaOH. The accumulation of Sb(III) by these DGT techniques was linear with time (R(2) > 0.99) and unaffected by pH (4.07-8.05), ionic strength (0.001-1.0 mol L(-1) NaCl), bicarbonate (1-15 mmol L(-1)), and an artificial seawater matrix (pH 8.34; salinity 34.8). Finally, the mercapto-silica DGT technique was applied to measure porewater concentrations of Sb(III) and As(III) in a contaminated freshwater sediment at high resolution.

New holder configurations for use in the diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) technique

This study reports two new holder configurations that can be used in the diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) technique, including a dual-mode holder and a new flat-type holder.