Human neutrophil membrane-derived nanovesicles as a drug delivery platform for improved therapy of infectious diseases

Bacterial derivatives mediated drug delivery in cancer therapy: a new generation strategy

Cancer is measured as a major threat to human life and is a leading cause of death. Millions of cancer patients die every year, although a burgeoning number of researchers have been making tremendous efforts to develop cancer medicine to fight against cancer. Owing to the complexity and heterogeneity of cancer, lack of ability to treat deep tumor tissues, and high toxicity to the normal cells, it complicates the therapy of cancer. However, bacterial derivative-mediated drug delivery has raised the interest of researchers in overcoming the restrictions of conventional cancer chemotherapy. In this review, we show various examples of tumor-targeting bacteria and bacterial derivatives for the delivery of anticancer drugs. This review also describes the advantages and limitations of delivering anticancer treatment drugs under regulated conditions employing these tumor-targeting bacteria and their membrane vesicles. This study highlights the substantial potential for clinical translation of bacterial-based drug carriers, improve their ability to work with other treatment modalities, and provide a more powerful, dependable, and distinctive tumor therapy.

A Review: Surface Engineering of Lipid-Based Drug Delivery Systems

This review explores the evolution of lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) for drug delivery (DD). Herein, LBNPs are classified into liposomes and cell membrane-based nanoparticles (CMNPs), each with unique advantages and challenges. Conventional LBNPs possess drawbacks such as poor targeting, quick clearance, and limited biocompatibility. One of the possible alternatives to overcome these challenges is surface modification of nanoparticles (NPs) with materials such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), aptamers, antibody fragments, peptides, CD44, hyaluronic acid, folic acid, palmitic acid, and lactoferrin. Thus, the main focus of this review will be on the different surface modifications that enable LBNPs to have beneficial properties for DD, such as enhancing mass transport properties, immune evasion, improved stability, and targeting. Moreover, various CMNPs are explored used for DD derived from cells such as red blood cells (RBCs), platelets, leukocytes, cancer cells, and stem cells, highlighting their unique natural properties (e.g., biocompatibility and ability to evade the immune system). This discussion extends to the biomimicking of hybrid NPs accomplished through the surface coating of synthetic (mainly polymeric) NPs with different cell membranes. This review aims to provide a comprehensive resource for researchers on recent advances in the field of surface modification of LBNPs and CMNPs. Overall, this review provides valuable insights into the dynamic field of lipid-based DD systems.

Neutrophil-derived nanovesicles deliver IL-37 to mitigate renal ischemia-reperfusion injury via endothelial cell targeting

Renal ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is one of the most important causes of acute kidney injury (AKI). Interleukin (IL)-37 has been suggested as a novel anti-inflammatory factor for the treatment of IRI, but its application is still limited by its low stability and delivery efficiency. In this study, we reported a novel engineered method to efficiently and easily prepare neutrophil membrane-derived vesicles (N-MVs), which could be utilized as a promising vehicle to deliver IL-37 and avoid the potential side effects of neutrophil-derived natural extracellular vesicles. N-MVs could enhance the stability of IL-37 and targetedly deliver IL-37 to damaged endothelial cells of IRI kidneys via P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1). In vitro and in vivo evidence revealed that N-MVs encapsulated with IL-37 (N-MV@IL-37) could inhibit endothelial cell apoptosis, promote endothelial cell proliferation and angiogenesis, and decrease inflammatory factor production and leukocyte infiltration, thereby ameliorating renal IRI. Our study establishes a promising delivery vehicle for the treatment of renal IRI and other endothelial damage-related diseases.

Recent advances in cell membrane camouflaged nanotherapeutics for the treatment of bacterial infection

Infectious diseases caused by bacterial infections are common in clinical practice. Cell membrane coating nanotechnology represents a pioneering approach for the delivery of therapeutic agents without being cleared by the immune system in the meantime. And the mechanism of infection treatment should be divided into two parts: suppression of pathogenic bacteria and suppression of excessive immune response. The membrane-coated nanoparticles exert anti-bacterial function by neutralizing exotoxins and endotoxins, and some other bacterial proteins. Inflammation, the second procedure of bacterial infection, can also be suppressed through targeting the inflamed site, neutralization of toxins, and the suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. And platelet membrane can affect the complement process to suppress inflammation. Membrane-coated nanoparticles treat bacterial infections through the combined action of membranes and nanoparticles, and diagnose by imaging, forming a theranostic system. Several strategies have been discovered to enhance the anti-bacterial/anti-inflammatory capability, such as synthesizing the material through electroporation, pretreating with the corresponding pathogen, membrane hybridization, or incorporating with genetic modification, lipid insertion, and click chemistry. Here we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge regarding the application of membrane-coated nanoparticles in preventing bacterial infections as well as addressing existing uncertainties and misconceptions.

Harnessing PD-1 cell membrane-coated paclitaxel dimer nanoparticles for potentiated chemoimmunotherapy

Chemoimmunotherapy has emerged as a promising strategy for improving the efficacy of cancer treatment. Herein, we present PD-1 receptor-presenting membrane-coated paclitaxel dimers nanoparticles (PD-1@PTX2 NPs) for enhanced treatment efficacy. PD-1 cell membrane-cloaked PTX dimer exhibited effective cellular uptake and increased cytotoxicity against cancer cells. PD-1@PTX2 NPs could selectively bind with PD-L1 ligands expressed on breast cancer cells. Our nanoparticles exhibit a remarkable tumor growth inhibition rate of 71.3% in mice bearing 4T1 xenografts and significantly prolong survival in mouse models of breast cancer. Additionally, our nanoparticles promoted a significant 3.2-fold increase in CD8+ T cell infiltration and 73.7% regulatory T cell (Treg) depletion within tumors, boosting a robust antitumor immune response. These findings underscore the potential of utilizing immune checkpoint receptor-presented PTX nanoparticles to enhance the efficacy of chemoimmunotherapy, providing an alternative approach for improving cancer treatment.

Engineering and Targeting Neutrophils for Cancer Therapy

Neutrophils are the most abundant white blood cells in the circulation and act as the first line of defense against infections. Increasing evidence suggests that neutrophils possess heterogeneous phenotypes and functional plasticity in human health and diseases, including cancer. Neutrophils play multifaceted roles in cancer development and progression, and an N1/N2 paradigm of neutrophils in cancer is proposed, where N1 neutrophils exert anti-tumor properties while N2 neutrophils display tumor-supportive and immune-suppressive functions. Selective activation of beneficial neutrophil population and targeted inhibition or re-polarization of tumor-promoting neutrophils has shown an important potential in tumor therapy. In addition, due to the natural inflammation-responsive and physical barrier-crossing abilities, neutrophils and their derivatives (membranes and extracellular vesicles (EVs)) are regarded as advanced drug delivery carriers for enhanced tumor targeting and improved therapeutic efficacy. In this review, the recent advances in engineering neutrophils for drug delivery and targeting neutrophils for remodeling tumor microenvironment (TME) are comprehensively presented. This review will provide a broad understanding of the potential of neutrophils in cancer therapy.

Biofunctional lipid nanoparticles for precision treatment and prophylaxis of bacterial infections

The lack of bacterial-targeting function in antibiotics and their prophylactic usage have caused overuse of antibiotics, which lead to antibiotic resistance and inevitable long-term toxicity. To overcome these issues, we develop neutrophil-bacterial hybrid cell membrane vesicle (HMV)-coated biofunctional lipid nanoparticles (LNP@HMVs), which are designed to transport antibiotics specifically to bacterial cells at the infection site for the effective treatment and prophylaxis of bacterial infection. The dual targeting ability of HMVs to inflammatory vascular endothelial cells and homologous Gram-negative bacterial cells results in targeted accumulation of LNP@HMVs in the site of infections. LNP@HMVs loaded with the antibiotic norfloxacin not only exhibit enhanced activity against planktonic bacteria and bacterial biofilms in vitro but also achieve potent therapeutic efficacy in treating both systemic infection and lung infection. Furthermore, LNP@HMVs trigger the activation of specific humoral and cellular immunity to prevent bacterial infection. Together, LNP@HMVs provide a promising strategy to effectively treat and prevent bacterial infection.

Cell membrane-coated biomimetic nanomedicines: productive cancer theranostic tools

As the second-leading cause of human death, cancer has drawn attention in the area of biomedical research and therapy from all around the world. Certainly, the development of nanotechnology has made it possible for nanoparticles (NPs) to be used as a carrier for delivery systems in the treatment of tumors. This is a biomimetic approach established to craft remedial strategies comprising NPs cloaked with membrane obtained from various natural cells like blood cells, bacterial cells, cancer cells, etc. Here we conduct an in-depth exploration of cell membrane-coated NPs (CMNPs) and their extensive array of applications including drug delivery, vaccination, phototherapy, immunotherapy, MRI imaging, PET imaging, multimodal imaging, gene therapy and a combination of photothermal and chemotherapy. This review article provides a thorough summary of the most recent developments in the use of CMNPs for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. It critically assesses the state of research while recognizing significant accomplishments and innovations. Additionally, it indicates ongoing problems in clinical translation and associated queries that warrant deeper research. By doing so, this study encourages creative thinking for future projects in the field of tumor therapy using CMNPs while also educating academics on the present status of CMNP research.

Advancing Precision: A Controllable Self-Synergistic Nanoplatform Initiating Pyroptosis-Based Immunogenic Cell Death Cascade for Targeted Tumor Therapy

Heterogeneity of the tumor microenvironment (TME) is primarily responsible for ineffective tumor treatment and uncontrolled tumor progression. Pyroptosis-based immunogenic cell death (ICD) therapy is an ideal strategy to overcome TME heterogeneity and obtain a satisfactory antitumor effect. However, the efficiency of current pyroptosis therapeutics, which mainly depends on a single endogenous or exogenous stimulus, is limited by the intrinsic pathological features of malignant cells. Thus, it is necessary to develop a synergistic strategy with a high tumor specificity and modulability. Herein, a synergistic nanoplatform is constructed by combining a neutrophil camouflaging shell and a self-synergistic reactive oxygen species (ROS) supplier-loaded polymer. The covered neutrophil membranes endow the nanoplatform with stealthy properties and facilitate sufficient tumor accumulation. Under laser irradiation, the photosensitizer (indocyanine green) exogenously triggers ROS generation and converts the laser irradiation into heat to upregulate NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1, which further catalyzes β-Lapachone to self-produce sufficient endogenous ROS, resulting in amplified ICD outcomes. The results confirm that the continuously amplified ROS production not only eliminates the primary tumor but also concurrently enhances gasdermin E-mediated pyroptosis, initiates an ICD cascade, re-educates the heterogeneous TME, and promotes a systemic immune response to suppress distant tumors. Overall, this self-synergistic nanoplatform provides an efficient and durable method for redesigning the immune system for targeted tumor inhibition.

Combination Therapy with Resveratrol and Celastrol Using Folic Acid-Functionalized Exosomes Enhances the Therapeutic Efficacy of Sepsis

Overactivated macrophages are a prominent feature of many inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, including sepsis. Attention and regulation of macrophages activity is of great significance for sepsis treatment. Herein, this study shows that folic acid-functionalized exosomes accumulate in the lung of septic mice and specifically target inflammatory macrophages. Therefore, FA-functionalized exosomes co-loaded with resveratrol (an anti-inflammatory polyphenol) and celastrol (an immunosuppressive pentacyclic triterpenoid; FA-Exo/R+C), which exhibit powerful anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive activities against LPS-stimulated macrophages in vitro by regulating NF-κB and ERK1/2 signaling pathways, are designed. Encouraged by these positive data, the efficacy of FA-Exo/R+C is systematically investigated in an LPS-induced mouse sepsis model. FA-Exo/R+C shows striking therapeutic benefits in terms of attenuated cytokine storm, reduced acute lung injury, and increased survival of septic mice by inhibiting the inflammation and proliferation of proinflammatory M1 macrophages. Importantly, multiple administrations of FA-Exo/R+C significantly enhance and prolong the protective effect, and resist rechallenge to LPS. Collectively, the strategy of co-delivering drugs combination through functionalized exosomes offers a new avenue for sepsis treatment.

Advances in extracellular vesicle functionalization strategies for tissue regeneration

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nano-scale vesicles derived by cell secretion with unique advantages such as promoting cell proliferation, anti-inflammation, promoting blood vessels and regulating cell differentiation, which benefit their wide applications in regenerative medicine. However, the in vivo therapeutic effect of EVs still greatly restricted by several obstacles, including the off-targetability, rapid blood clearance, and undesired release. To address these issues, biomedical engineering techniques are vastly explored. This review summarizes different strategies to enhance EV functions from the perspective of drug loading, modification, and combination of biomaterials, and emphatically introduces the latest developments of functionalized EV-loaded biomaterials in different diseases, including cardio-vascular system diseases, osteochondral disorders, wound healing, nerve injuries. Challenges and future directions of EVs are also discussed.

Lung Inflammation Resolution by RvD1 and RvD2 in a Receptor-Dependent Manner

Inflammation resolution is an active process via specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) to fight invading microbes and repair tissue injury. RvD1 and RvD2 are SPMs produced from DHA during inflammation responses and show a benefit in treating inflammation disorders, but it is not completely understood how they act on vasculature and immune cells in the lung to promote inflammation resolution programs. Here, we studied how RvD1 and RvD2 regulated the interactions between endothelial cells and neutrophils in vitro and in vivo. In an acute lung inflammation (ALI) mouse model, we found that RvD1 and RvD2 resolved lung inflammation via their receptors (ALX/GPR32 or GPR18) and enhanced the macrophage phagocytosis of apoptotic neutrophils, which may be the molecular mechanism of lung inflammation resolution. Interestingly, we observed the higher potency of RvD1 over RvD2, which may be associated with unique downstream signaling pathways. Together, our studies suggest that the targeted delivery of these SPMs into inflammatory sites may be novel strategies with which to treat a wide range of inflammatory diseases.

PKM2/STAT1-mediated PD-L1 upregulation on neutrophils during sepsis promotes neutrophil organ accumulation by serving an anti-apoptotic role

BACKGROUND

Delayed neutrophil apoptosis during sepsis may impact neutrophil organ accumulation and tissue immune homeostasis. Elucidating the mechanisms underlying neutrophil apoptosis may help identify potential therapeutic targets. Glycolysis is critical to neutrophil activities during sepsis. However, the precise mechanisms through which glycolysis regulates neutrophil physiology remain under-explored, especially those involving the non-metabolic functions of glycolytic enzymes. In the present study, the impact of programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) on neutrophil apoptosis was explored. The regulatory effect of the glycolytic enzyme, pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2), whose role in septic neutrophils remains unaddressed, on neutrophil PD-L1 expression was also explored.

METHODS

Peripheral blood neutrophils were isolated from patients with sepsis and healthy controls. PD-L1 and PKM2 levels were determined by flow cytometry and Western blotting, respectively. Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)-differentiated HL-60 cells were stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) as an in vitro simulation of septic neutrophils. Cell apoptosis was assessed by annexin V/propidium iodide (annexin V/PI) staining, as well as determination of protein levels of cleaved caspase-3 and myeloid cell leukemia-1 (Mcl-1) by Western blotting. An in vivo model of sepsis was constructed by intraperitoneal injection of LPS (5 mg/kg) for 16 h. Pulmonary and hepatic neutrophil infiltration was assessed by flow cytometry or immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

PD-L1 level was elevated on neutrophils under septic conditions. Administration of neutralizing antibodies against PD-L1 partially reversed the inhibitory effect of LPS on neutrophil apoptosis. Neutrophil infiltration into the lung and liver was also reduced in PD-L1-/- mice 16 h after sepsis induction. PKM2 was upregulated in septic neutrophils and promoted neutrophil PD-L1 expression both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, PKM2 nuclear translocation was increased after LPS stimulation, which promoted PD-L1 expression by directly interacting with and activating signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1). Inhibition of PKM2 activity or STAT1 activation also led to increased neutrophil apoptosis.

CONCLUSION

In this study, a PKM2/STAT1-mediated upregulation of PD-L1 on neutrophils and the anti-apoptotic effect of upregulated PD-L1 on neutrophils during sepsis were identified, which may result in increased pulmonary and hepatic neutrophil accumulation. These findings suggest that PKM2 and PD-L1 could serve as potential therapeutic targets.

Remote Co-loading of amphipathic acid drugs in neutrophil nanovesicles infilled with cholesterol mitigates lung bacterial infection and inflammation

Lung bacterial infections could result in acute lung inflammation/injury (ALI) that propagates to its severe form, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ADRS) leading to the death. The molecular mechanism of ALI is associated with bacterial invasion and the host inflammation response. Here, we proposed a novel strategy to specifically target both bacteria and inflammatory pathways by co-loading of antibiotics (azlocillin, AZ) and anti-inflammatory agents (methylprednisolone sodium, MPS) in neutrophil nanovesicles. We found that cholesterol infilling in the membrane of nanovesicles can maintain a pH gradient between intra-vesicles and outer-vesicles, so we remotely loaded both AZ and MPS in single nanovesicles. The results showed that loading efficiency of both drugs can achieve more than 30% (w/w), and delivery of both drugs using nanovesicles accelerated bacterial clearance and resolved inflammation responses, thus preventing the potential lung damage due to infections. Our studies show that remote loading of multiple drugs in neutrophil nanovesicles which specifically target the infectious lung could be translational to treat ARDS.

Neutrophil-inspired photothermo-responsive drug delivery system for targeted treatment of bacterial infection and endotoxins neutralization

BACKGROUND

P. aeruginosa, a highly virulent Gram-negative bacterium, can cause severe nosocomial infections, and it has developed resistance against most antibiotics. New therapeutic strategies are urgently needed to treat such bacterial infection and reduce its toxicity caused by endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide, LPS). Neutrophils have been proven to be able to target inflammation site and neutrophil membrane receptors such as Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) and CD14, and exhibit specific affinity to LPS. However, antibacterial delivery system based on the unique properties of neutrophils has not been reported.

METHODS

A neutrophil-inspired antibacterial delivery system for targeted photothermal treatment, stimuli-responsive antibiotic release and endotoxin neutralization is reported in this study. Specifically, the photothermal reagent indocyanine green (ICG) and antibiotic rifampicin (RIF) are co-loaded into poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NP-ICG/RIF), followed by coating with neutrophil membrane to obtain antibacterial delivery system (NM-NP-ICG/RIF). The inflammation targeting properties, synergistic antibacterial activity of photothermal therapy and antibiotic treatment, and endotoxin neutralization have been studied in vitro. A P. aeruginosa-induced murine skin abscess infection model has been used to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of the NM-NP-ICG/RIF.

RESULTS

Once irradiated by near-infrared lasers, the heat generated by NP-ICG/RIF triggers the release of RIF and ICG, resulting in a synergistic chemo-photothermal antibacterial effect against P. aeruginosa (~ 99.99% killing efficiency in 5 min). After coating with neutrophil-like cell membrane vesicles (NMVs), the nanoparticles (NM-NP-ICG/RIF) specifically bind to inflammatory vascular endothelial cells in infectious site, endowing the nanoparticles with an infection microenvironment targeting function to enhance retention time. Importantly, it is discovered for the first time that NMVs-coated nanoparticles are able to neutralize endotoxins. The P. aeruginosa murine skin abscess infection model further demonstrates the in vivo therapeutic efficacy of NM-NP-ICG/RIF.

CONCLUSION

The neutrophil-inspired antibacterial delivery system (NM-NP-ICG/RIF) is capable of targeting infection microenvironment, neutralizing endotoxin, and eradicating bacteria through a synergistic effect of photothermal therapy and antibiotic treatment. This drug delivery system made from FDA-approved compounds provides a promising approach to fighting against hard-to-treat bacterial infections.

Stimuli-responsive and biomimetic delivery systems for sepsis and related complications

Sepsis, a consequence of an imbalanced immune response to infection, is currently one of the leading causes of death globally. Despite advances in the discoveries of potential targets and nanotechnology, sepsis still lacks effective drug delivery systems for optimal treatment. Stimuli-responsive and biomimetic nano delivery systems, specifically, are emerging as advanced bio-inspired nanocarriers for enhancing the treatment of sepsis. Herein, we present a critical review of different stimuli-responsive systems, including pH-; enzyme-; ROS- and toxin-responsive nanocarriers, reported in the delivery of therapeutics for sepsis. Biomimetic nanocarriers, utilizing natural pathways in the inflammatory cascade to optimize sepsis therapy, are also reviewed, in addition to smart, multifunctional vehicles. The review highlights the nanomaterials designed for constructing these systems; their physicochemical properties; the mechanisms of drug release; and their potential for enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of their cargo. Current challenges are identified and future avenues for research into the optimization of bio-inspired nano delivery systems for sepsis are also proposed. This review confirms the potential of stimuli-responsive and biomimetic nanocarriers for enhanced therapy against sepsis and related complications.

Biomimetic fabrication of nanotherapeutics by leukocyte membrane cloaking for targeted therapy

Cell membrane cloaking is an important biomimetic approach for improving drug residence time in the body due to its distinctive concealment ability, making it highly biocompatible and efficient for targeted drug delivery. Leukocytes are considered a fundamental part of the immune system. Leukocyte membrane cloaked nanoparticles offer site-specificity and can escape the opsonization process besides enhanced systemic circulation time. This review emphasizes the anatomical and physiological features of different leukocytes in addition to the preparation and characterization of leukocyte membrane cloaked nanoparticles. It also covers the recent advancements of this biointerfacing platform in cancer therapy, inflammatory disorders, multifunctional targeted therapy and hybrid membrane-coated nanoparticles. However, leukocytes are complex, nucleated cell structures and isolating their membranes poses a greater difficulty. Leukocyte membrane cloaking is an upcoming strategy in the infancy stage; nevertheless, there is immense scope to explore this biomimetic delivery system in terms of clinical transition, particularly for inflammatory diseases and cancer.

Neutrophil Extracellular Vesicles: A Delicate Balance between Pro-Inflammatory Responses and Anti-Inflammatory Therapies

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are released in the extracellular environment during cell activation or apoptosis. Working as signal transducers, EVs are important mediators of intercellular communication through the convoying of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and metabolites. Neutrophil extracellular vesicles (nEVs) contain molecules acting as key modulators of inflammation and immune responses. Due to their potential as therapeutic tools, studies about nEVs have been increasing in recent years. However, our knowledge about nEVs is still in its infancy. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of the role of nEVs in the framework of neutrophil inflammation functions and disease development. The therapeutic potential of nEVs as clinical treatment strategies is deeply discussed. Moreover, the promising research landscape of nEVs in the near future is also examined.

Cell membrane-coated nanoparticles for the treatment of bacterial infection

Despite the enormous success of antibiotics in antimicrobial therapy, the rapid emergence of antibiotic resistance and the complexity of the bacterial infection microenvironment make traditional antibiotic therapy face critical challenges against resistant bacteria, antitoxin, and intracellular infections. Consequently, there is a critical need to design antimicrobial agents that target infection microenvironment and alleviate antibiotic resistance. Cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CMCNPs) are biomimetic materials that can be obtained by wrapping the cell membrane vesicles directly onto the surface of the nanoparticles (NPs) through physical means. Incorporating the biological functions of cell membrane vesicles and the superior physicochemical properties of NPs, CMCNPs have shown great promise in recent years for targeting infections, neutralizing bacterial toxins, and designing bacterial infection vaccines. This review highlights topics where CMCNPs present great value in advancing the treatment of bacterial infections, including drug delivery, detoxification, and vaccination. Lastly, we discuss the future hurdles and prospects of translating this technique into clinical practice, providing a comprehensive review of the technological developments of CMCNPs in the treatment of bacterial infections. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology.

Usage of Nanoparticles to Alter Neutrophils' Function for Therapy

Neutrophils, the most abundant white blood cells in the human body, are important immune cells responsible for the innate immune response. Neutrophils can migrate to inflammatory areas, such as tumor sites and infection sites, because of chemotaxis. Neutrophil-based nanomaterials, such as neutrophil-nanomaterial composites and neutrophil membrane-based nanomaterials, can help the drug or imaging agent gather in the inflammatory area with the help of chemotaxis. In addition, some nanomaterials can interfere with the function of neutrophils to treat tissue damage caused by excessive local accumulation of neutrophils. This review focuses on the interaction between nanomaterials and neutrophils as well as the applications of neutrophil-based nanomaterials and neutrophil-interfering nanomaterials.

Blood cell-based drug delivery systems: a biomimetic platform for antibacterial therapy

With the rapid increase in multidrug-resistance against antibiotics, higher doses of antibiotics or more effective antibiotics are needed to treat diseases, which ultimately leads to a decrease in the body's immunity and seriously threatens human health worldwide. The efficiency of antibiotics has been a large challenge for years. To overcome this problem, many carriers are utilized for anti-bacteria, attempting to optimize the delivery of such drugs and transport them safely and directly to the site of disease. Blood cell-based drug delivery systems present several advantages as compared to polymeric delivery system. These blood cells including red blood cells (RBCs), leukocytes, platelets. The blood cells and their membranes can both be used as drug carriers to deliver antibacterial drugs. In addition, blood cells can overcome many physiological/pathological obstacles faced by nanoparticles in vivo and effectively deliver drugs to the site of the disease. In this paper, we review studies on blood cell-based delivery systems used in antibacterial therapy, and analyze different roles in antibacterial therapy, which provide basis for further study in this field.

Engineering bacterial membrane nanovesicles for improved therapies in infectious diseases and cancer

Research on bacterial membrane vesicles (BMVs) is an emerging topic, and the goal is to address whether BMVs can bring translational tools to improve current therapies. In this review, we provided the updated studies on BMVs including their production, their types, and therapeutic regimens for treating infectious diseases and cancers. We described several platforms of BMVs, such as outer membrane vesicles (OMVs), inner membrane vesicles (IMVs) and double membrane vesicles (DMVs), and those structures were produced from Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria. We also discussed how to engineer and formulate new and novel BMVs using chemical, physical, and genetic methods. For therapies, we analyzed current methods for loading drugs in BMVs and discussed their limitations. Finally, we reviewed several therapeutic platforms of BMVs that have been exploited in improving the treatments of infectious diseases and cancers. Although BMVs offer the promising biomedical applications, it is needed to develop rigorous approaches and methods to generate reproducible and scalable drug delivery systems for translation.

COVID-19 inflammation and implications in drug delivery

Growing evidence indicates that hyperinflammatory syndrome and cytokine storm observed in COVID-19 severe cases are narrowly associated with the disease's poor prognosis. Therefore, targeting the inflammatory pathways seems to be a rational therapeutic strategy against COVID-19. Many anti-inflammatory agents have been proposed; however, most of them suffer from poor bioavailability, instability, short half-life, and undesirable biodistribution resulting in off-target effects. From a pharmaceutical standpoint, the implication of COVID-19 inflammation can be exploited as a therapeutic target and/or a targeting strategy against the pandemic. First, the drug delivery systems can be harnessed to improve the properties of anti-inflammatory agents and deliver them safely and efficiently to their therapeutic targets. Second, the drug carriers can be tailored to develop smart delivery systems able to respond to the microenvironmental stimuli to release the anti-COVID-19 therapeutics in a selective and specific manner. More interestingly, some biosystems can simultaneously repress the hyperinflammation due to their inherent anti-inflammatory potency and endow their drug cargo with a selective delivery to the injured sites.

Liposomal Formulations Enhance the Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Eicosapentaenoic Acid in HL60 Cells

Dietary omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), including docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), have been reported to be beneficial for cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Such diseases share a common pathophysiological feature of inflammation responses, such as unbalanced oxidative stress and increased cytokine release. PUFAs show anti-inflammatory effects, and thus, they are potential therapeutics to treat inflammatory disorders. Here, we proposed a novel liposomal formulation of EPA (EPA-liposomes), and the liposome was PEGylated to increase their stability. In the study, we measured the physicochemical characteristics of EPA-liposomes and their anti-inflammatory effects in neutrophil-like cells (HL 60 cells). The results showed that EPA-liposomes dramatically decreased the production of NO, ROS, and cytokines compared to EPA alone, and the molecular mechanism is associated with biosynthesis of RvE1 from EPA, and RvE1 binds to GPCRs to mediate the anti-inflammatory effects.

The Advances of Neutrophil-Derived Effective Drug Delivery Systems: A Key Review of Managing Tumors and Inflammation

The chimeric trait of recruitment by inflammatory signals endows neutrophils with the functionality of migrating to inflamed tissues, which can be utilized to tailor novel drug delivery systems. In this review, we introduce a mechanism of neutrophil-derived drug delivery systems recruited into inflamed sites and provide insight into tumors and inflammation therapy. In particular, the advantages of neutrophils—their endogenous-derived neutrophil membrane, exosomes as drug carriers for augmented targeting, prolonged circulation, and improved biostability—were concluded. Subsequently, the latest application in the treatment of tumors and inflammation was elaborated upon, followed by a discussion of the future prospects to neutrophil-derived delivery systems. This promising system will provide new therapeutic avenues for the treatment of inflammation and tumors.

Neutrophils as an emerging therapeutic target and tool for cancer therapy

Activation of neutrophils is necessary for the protection of the host against microbial infection. This property can be used as mode of therapy for cancer treatment. Neutrophils have conflicting dual functions in cancer as either a tumor promoter or inhibitor. Neutrophil-based drug delivery has achieved increased attention in pre-clinical models. This review addresses in detail the different neutrophil constituents, the conflicting function of neutrophils and activation of the neutrophil as an important target of therapy for cancer treatment, and use of neutrophils or neutrophil membrane-derived vesicles as vehicles for drug delivery and targeting.

Recent advances in cell membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles for inflammation therapy

During inflammation, inflammatory cells are rapidly recruited to sites of infection or injury, where they cross physiological barriers around the infected site and further infiltrate into the tissues. Other cells, such as erythrocytes, endothelial cells and stem cells, also play prominent roles in host defense and tissue repair. In recent years, nanotechnology has been exploited to deliver drugs to sites of inflammation. For example, nanoparticles camouflaged with a cell membrane are a novel drug-delivery platform that can interact with the immune system and that show great potential for treating inflammation. Encapsulating drugs inside plasma membranes derived from various cells involved in inflammatory processes can be effective against inflammation. This review describes the preparation, characterization, and properties of various types of cell membrane-camouflaged biomimetic nanoparticles. It also summarizes preclinical research into their efficacy against inflammation.