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Išerić E, Scholey A, Verster JC. Alcohol hangovers as a predictor of the development of immune-related chronic diseases. ALCOHOL, CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 2024. [PMID: 39227320 DOI: 10.1111/acer.15434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2024] [Accepted: 08/22/2024] [Indexed: 09/05/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Emina Išerić
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Andrew Scholey
- Centre for Mental Health and Brain Sciences, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Nutrition Dietetics and Food, School of Clinical Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Joris C Verster
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Centre for Mental Health and Brain Sciences, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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2
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Podobnik B, Demšar L, Šarc L, Jerin A, Osredkar J, Trontelj J, Roškar R, Brvar M. N-Acetylcysteine Ineffective in Alleviating Hangover from Binge Drinking: A Clinical Study. TOXICS 2024; 12:585. [PMID: 39195687 PMCID: PMC11360226 DOI: 10.3390/toxics12080585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2024] [Revised: 07/16/2024] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 08/29/2024]
Abstract
Alcohol hangover (veisalgia) is a fairly common phenomenon. The pathogenesis of veisalgia is not understood and treatment has not yet been established. Occasionally, students take N-acetylcysteine (NAC) before binge drinking to alleviate hangover. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of NAC on serum levels of electrolytes, enzymes, oxidative stress biomarkers and symptoms of veisalgia in binge drinking. In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, healthy students were randomly assigned into two groups: one receiving NAC and the other receiving a placebo. Blood samples were taken before drinking, 30 min after a 1.5 h long drinking session, and the subsequent morning. Serum levels of electrolytes, urea, enzymes, ethanol, 8-Hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) and N-epsilon-hexanoyl-lysine were measured. The participants completed the Acute Hangover Severity Scale (AHSS) assessment based on symptoms, and 40 students (20 male), aged 23 ± 2 years, were included in the study. Their mean blood ethanol concentration was 1.4 g/kg. Serum sodium levels were increased after drinking, and urea decreased the following morning compared to their levels before drinking in both groups. Serum 8-OHdG levels were increased after drinking and remained elevated until the following morning, compared to the levels before drinking, in both groups. NAC had no effect on sodium, urea and 8-OHdG levels or the symptoms of veisalgia. In conclusion, binge drinking causes a transient increase in serum sodium and as a prolonged increase in oxidative marker 8-OHdG levels. NAC had no effect on the sodium and 8-OHdG levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris Podobnik
- Centre for Clinical Toxicology and Pharmacology, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia (L.D.); (L.Š.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Lenart Demšar
- Centre for Clinical Toxicology and Pharmacology, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia (L.D.); (L.Š.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Lucija Šarc
- Centre for Clinical Toxicology and Pharmacology, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia (L.D.); (L.Š.)
| | - Aleš Jerin
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia (J.O.)
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Joško Osredkar
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia (J.O.)
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jurij Trontelj
- Department of Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (J.T.); (R.R.)
| | - Robert Roškar
- Department of Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (J.T.); (R.R.)
| | - Miran Brvar
- Centre for Clinical Toxicology and Pharmacology, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia (L.D.); (L.Š.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Mackus M, Stock AK, Garssen J, Scholey A, Verster JC. Alcohol hangover versus dehydration revisited: The effect of drinking water to prevent or alleviate the alcohol hangover. Alcohol 2024; 121:9-18. [PMID: 39069212 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2024.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2024] [Revised: 07/20/2024] [Accepted: 07/23/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
The alcohol hangover is a combination of negative mental and physical symptoms which can be experienced after a single episode of alcohol consumption, starting when blood alcohol concentration (BAC) approaches zero. A popular theory suggests that dehydration is the primary cause of alcohol hangover and that the consumption of water could alleviate hangover symptoms. Here, the current evidence on the relationship between hangover severity, thirst, and water consumption is summarized. The positive correlations of the amount of water consumed with both hangover severity and thirst suggest that both dehydration and the hangover are co-occurring after-effects of alcohol consumption. While hangovers were typically relatively enduring, dehydration effects were usually mild and short-lasting. Survey data revealed that water consumption during or directly after alcohol consumption had only a modest effect in preventing next-day hangover. Also, the amount of water consumed during hangover was not related to changes of hangover severity and thirst. Thus, water consumption was not effective to alleviate the alcohol hangover. Taken together, these data suggests that alcohol hangover and dehydration are two co-occurring but independent consequences of alcohol consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlou Mackus
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Utrecht University, 3584CG Utrecht, the Netherlands.
| | - Ann-Kathrin Stock
- Cognitive Neurophysiology Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Dresden D-01307, Germany; Biopsychology, Faculty of Psychology, School of Science, TU Dresden, 01069 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Johan Garssen
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Utrecht University, 3584CG Utrecht, the Netherlands; Danone Global Research and Innovation Center, Uppsalalaan 12, 3584CT Utrecht, the Netherlands.
| | - Andrew Scholey
- Nutrition Dietetics and Food, School of Clinical Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3168, Australia.
| | - Joris C Verster
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Utrecht University, 3584CG Utrecht, the Netherlands; Cognitive Neurophysiology Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Dresden D-01307, Germany; Centre for Human Psychopharmacology, Swinburne University, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia.
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4
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Išerić E, Scholey A, Verster JC, Karadayian AG. Alcohol hangover recognized as a separate medical condition in ICD-11: could effective treatments be counterproductive? Alcohol Alcohol 2024; 59:agae052. [PMID: 39078616 DOI: 10.1093/alcalc/agae052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2024] [Revised: 06/14/2024] [Accepted: 07/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/31/2024] Open
Abstract
Recently, the alcohol hangover has been accepted by the International Classification of Diseases - 11th revision as a separate 'child entity' to alcohol intoxication, a disease. Currently there are no marketed hangover treatments with support for clinical efficacy. Furthermore, diverse perspectives exist among healthcare professionals, policymakers, and alcohol consumers regarding the necessity and desirability of developing such treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emina Išerić
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht University, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht 3584CG, The Netherlands
| | - Andrew Scholey
- Monash University, Nutrition Dietetics and Food, School of Clinical Sciences, Melbourne, Australia
- Centre for Mental Health and Brain Sciences, Swinburne University, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia
| | - Joris C Verster
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht University, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht 3584CG, The Netherlands
- Centre for Mental Health and Brain Sciences, Swinburne University, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, TU Dresden, Dresden D-01307, Germany
| | - Analia G Karadayian
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Fisicoquímica, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- CONICET-Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Bioquímica y Medicina Molecular "Profesor Alberto Boveris" (IBIMOL), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Severeijns NR, Sips ASM, Merlo A, Bruce G, Verster JC. Absenteeism, Presenteeism, and the Economic Costs of Alcohol Hangover in The Netherlands. Healthcare (Basel) 2024; 12:335. [PMID: 38338220 PMCID: PMC10855845 DOI: 10.3390/healthcare12030335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The alcohol hangover is defined as the combination of negative mental and physical symptoms that can be experienced after a single episode of alcohol consumption, starting when the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) approaches zero. Alcohol hangover symptoms such as fatigue, nausea, and headache can negatively affect daily activities, including work performance. The alcohol hangover can therefore be a cause of both absenteeism (not going to work) and presenteeism (going to work while hungover). An online survey among a convenience sample of n = 347 Dutch adults examined the number of days of absenteeism and presenteeism associated with having a hangover as well as the loss of productivity when going to work when hungover during the year 2019. In the Dutch sample, 8.1% of employees reported one or more days of absenteeism due to hangover in 2019, and 33.4% reported one or more days of presenteeism. The analyses revealed that alcohol hangover was associated with 0.2 days of absenteeism and 8.3 days of presenteeism and a productivity loss of 24.9% on days worked with a hangover. The estimated associated costs for the Dutch economy in 2019 of absenteeism (EUR 234,538,460) and presenteeism (EUR 2,423,603,184) total EUR 2,658,141,644. In conclusion, the alcohol hangover is associated with absenteeism, presenteeism, and reduced performance at work while hungover. As such, the annual costs of the alcohol hangover have a significant impact on the Dutch economy. However, these first findings on the economic costs of the alcohol hangover should be considered a rough estimate. They should be verified in a longitudinal study to minimize recall bias, including a nationally representative sample of sufficient sample size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noortje R. Severeijns
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (N.R.S.); (A.S.M.S.); (A.M.)
| | - Annabel S. M. Sips
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (N.R.S.); (A.S.M.S.); (A.M.)
| | - Agnese Merlo
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (N.R.S.); (A.S.M.S.); (A.M.)
| | - Gillian Bruce
- Division of Psychology and Social Work, School of Education and Social Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK;
| | - Joris C. Verster
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (N.R.S.); (A.S.M.S.); (A.M.)
- Centre for Human Psychopharmacology, Swinburne University, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia
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Han DH, Davis JP, Davies DL, Clapp JD, Pedersen ER, Leventhal AM. Association of over the counter "hangover remedy" use with alcohol use problems and consumption patterns among young adults. Alcohol Alcohol 2024; 59:agad081. [PMID: 38016799 PMCID: PMC10794163 DOI: 10.1093/alcalc/agad081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/30/2023] Open
Abstract
This cross-sectional study of young adults examined associations of hangover remedy use with alcohol use problems. Results suggest that ever-use of hangover remedy products was positively associated with alcohol use problem score, drinks per typical drinking day, and alcohol use disorder symptom count. Use of hangover remedies among young adults merits further scientific and regulatory attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dae-Hee Han
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Institute for Addiction Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Jordan P Davis
- Institute for Addiction Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Suzanne Dworak-Peck School of Social Work, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Daryl L Davies
- Institute for Addiction Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Titus Family Department of Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - John D Clapp
- Institute for Addiction Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Suzanne Dworak-Peck School of Social Work, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Eric R Pedersen
- Institute for Addiction Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Adam M Leventhal
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Institute for Addiction Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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7
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Zhao X, Xue X, Wang J, Dai S, Peng C, Li Y. Quercetin alleviates ethanol-induced hepatic steatosis in L02 cells by activating TFEB translocation to compensate for inadequate autophagy. Phytother Res 2023; 37:62-76. [PMID: 36131369 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.7593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2022] [Revised: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the therapeutic effect of quercetin on ethanol-induced hepatic steatosis in L02 cells and elucidate the potential mechanism. In brief, L02 cells were pretreated with or without ethanol (3%) for 24 h, then treated quercetin (80, 40, 20 μM) for 24 h. The transfection procedure was performed with transcription factor EB (TFEB) small interfering RNA (siRNA TFEB) for 24 h. Our results showed that quercetin autophagic flux in the L02 cells, via upregulating of microtubule associated protein light chain 3B (LC3-II) and lysosome-associated membrane protein 1 (LAMP1), then downregulating of protein sequestosome 1 (SQSTM1/p62). Mechanistically, quercetin activated TFEB nuclear translocation, contributing to lysosomal biogenesis and autophagic activation. Accordingly, the genetic inhibition of TFEB-dependent autophagy decreased ethanol-induced fat accumulation in L02 cells via regulating fatty acid β oxidation and lipid synthesis. Subsequently, quercetin-induced TFEB-dependent autophagic activation was also linked to inhibit oxidative stress via suppressing reactive oxygen species (ROS), enhancing activities of antioxidant enzymes, and promoting nuclear transfer of the nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) translocation. Thus, we uncovered a novel protective mechanism against ethanol-induced hepatic steatosis and oxidative stress through TFEB-mediated lysosomal biogenesis and discovered insufficient autophagy as a novel previously unappreciated autophagic flux.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingtao Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Ministry of Education, Chengdu, China.,School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Xinyan Xue
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Ministry of Education, Chengdu, China.,School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Jing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Ministry of Education, Chengdu, China.,School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Shu Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Ministry of Education, Chengdu, China.,School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Cheng Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Ministry of Education, Chengdu, China.,School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Yunxia Li
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Ministry of Education, Chengdu, China.,School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
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Getachew B, Csoka AB, Tizabi Y. Dihydromyricetin Protects Against Ethanol-Induced Toxicity in SH-SY5Y Cell Line: Role of GABA A Receptor. Neurotox Res 2022; 40:892-899. [PMID: 35386023 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-022-00503-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Toxicity induced by binge alcohol drinking, particularly in adolescent and young adults, is of major medical and social consequence. Recently, we reported that butyrate, a short chain fatty acid, can protect against ethanol (ETOH)-induced toxicity in an in vitro model. In this study, we sought to evaluate the potential effectiveness of dihydromyricetin (DHM), a natural bioactive flavonoid, alone or in combination with butyrate in the same model. Exposure of SH-SY5Y cells for 24 h to 500 mM ETOH resulted in approximately 40% reduction in cell viability, which was completely prevented by 0.1 μM DHM. Combinations of DHM and butyrate provided synergistic protection against alcohol toxicity. Whereas butyrate effect was shown to be mediated primarily through fatty acid receptor 3 activation, DHM protection appears to be mediated primarily via benzodiazepine receptor site of GABAA receptor. This is based on the finding that DHM's effect could be completely prevented by pretreatment with flumazenil, a selective antagonist at this site, but not by bicuculline, a selective antagonist at the actual GABAA receptor binding site. These findings suggest potential utility of DHM alone or in combination with butyrate against ETOH-induced toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruk Getachew
- Department of Pharmacology, Howard University College of Medicine, 520 W Street NW, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Antonei B Csoka
- Department of Anatomy, Howard University College of Medicine, 520 W Street NW, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Yousef Tizabi
- Department of Pharmacology, Howard University College of Medicine, 520 W Street NW, Washington, DC, USA.
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Mackus M, van de Loo AJAE, van den Bogaard WJM, Korte-Bouws GAH, Garssen J, Verster JC. The 5HTOL/5HIAA Ratio as a Biomarker of Alcohol Hangover. J Clin Med 2021; 10:jcm10184241. [PMID: 34575350 PMCID: PMC8467792 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10184241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Assessment of the presence and severity of alcohol hangovers relies on the subjective method of self-report. Therefore, there is a need of adequate biomarkers that (1) correlate significantly with hangover severity, and (2) correspond to the level of hangover-related performance impairment objectively. In this naturalistic study, n = 35 social drinkers participated. Urine samples were obtained the morning after alcohol consumption and after an alcohol-free control day. Concentrations of 5-hydroxytryptophol (5-HTOL), 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) and the 5-HTOL/5-HIAA ratio were determined. The results confirm previous findings that 5-HTOL and the 5HTOL/5-HIAA ratio are useful biomarkers of recent alcohol consumption. Significant correlations were found with the amount of alcohol consumed, total drink time, and estimated BAC. However, urine concentrations of 5-HTOL and 5-HIAA (and their ratio 5HTOL/5-HIAA) did not significantly correlate with hangover severity. In conclusion, urine 5-HTOL, 5-HIAA, and the 5HTOL/5-HIAA ratio cannot be considered to be suitable biomarkers of alcohol hangover.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlou Mackus
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.M.); (A.J.A.E.v.d.L.); (W.J.M.v.d.B.); (G.A.H.K.-B.); (J.G.)
| | - Aurora J. A. E. van de Loo
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.M.); (A.J.A.E.v.d.L.); (W.J.M.v.d.B.); (G.A.H.K.-B.); (J.G.)
| | - Willie J. M. van den Bogaard
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.M.); (A.J.A.E.v.d.L.); (W.J.M.v.d.B.); (G.A.H.K.-B.); (J.G.)
| | - Gerdien A. H. Korte-Bouws
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.M.); (A.J.A.E.v.d.L.); (W.J.M.v.d.B.); (G.A.H.K.-B.); (J.G.)
| | - Johan Garssen
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.M.); (A.J.A.E.v.d.L.); (W.J.M.v.d.B.); (G.A.H.K.-B.); (J.G.)
- Global Centre of Excellence Immunology, Nutricia Danone Research, 3584 CT Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Joris C. Verster
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.M.); (A.J.A.E.v.d.L.); (W.J.M.v.d.B.); (G.A.H.K.-B.); (J.G.)
- Centre for Human Psychopharmacology, Swinburne University, Melbourne, VIC 3122, Australia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +31-30-253-6909
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