Nucleic acid delivery for therapeutic applications

Breaking the final barrier: Evolution of cationic and ionizable lipid structure in lipid nanoparticles to escape the endosome

In the past decade, nucleic acid therapies have seen a boon in development and clinical translation largely due to advances in nanotechnology that have enabled their safe and targeted transport. Nanoparticles can protect nucleic acids from degradation by serum enzymes and can facilitate entry into cells. Still, achieving endosomal escape to allow the nucleic acids to enter the cytoplasm has remained a significant barrier, where less than 5% of particles within the endo-lysosomal pathway are able to transfer their cargo to the cytosol. Lipid-based drug delivery vehicles, particularly lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), have been optimized to achieve potent endosomal escape, and thus have been the vector of choice in the clinic as demonstrated by their utilization in the COVID-19 mRNA vaccines. The success of LNPs is in large part due to the rational design of lipids that can specifically break through endosomal barriers. In this review, we chart the evolution of lipid structure from cationic lipids to ionizable lipids, focusing on structure-function relationships, especially as they relate to endosomal escape. Additionally, we examine recent advancements in ionizable lipid structure as well as discuss the future of lipid design.

Glucose metabolism in glioma: an emerging sight with ncRNAs

Glioma is a primary brain tumor that grows quickly, has an unfavorable prognosis, and can spread intracerebrally. Glioma cells rely on glucose as the major energy source, and glycolysis plays a critical role in tumorigenesis and progression. Substrate utilization shifts throughout glioma progression to facilitate energy generation and biomass accumulation. This metabolic reprogramming promotes glioma cell proliferation and metastasis and ultimately decreases the efficacy of conventional treatments. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are involved in several glucose metabolism pathways during tumor initiation and progression. These RNAs influence cell viability and glucose metabolism by modulating the expression of key genes of the glycolytic pathway. They can directly or indirectly affect glycolysis in glioma cells by influencing the transcription and post-transcriptional regulation of oncogenes and suppressor genes. In this review, we discussed the role of ncRNAs in the metabolic reprogramming of glioma cells and tumor microenvironments and their abnormal expression in the glucometabolic pathway in glioma. In addition, we consolidated the existing theoretical knowledge to facilitate the use of this emerging class of biomarkers as biological indicators and potential therapeutic targets for glioma.

Selective deuteration of an RNA:RNA complex for structural analysis using small-angle scattering

The structures of RNA:RNA complexes regulate many biological processes. Despite their importance, protein-free RNA:RNA complexes represent a tiny fraction of experimentally-determined structures. Here, we describe a joint small-angle X-ray and neutron scattering (SAXS/SANS) approach to structurally interrogate conformational changes in a model RNA:RNA complex. Using SAXS, we measured the solution structures of the individual RNAs in their free state and of the overall RNA:RNA complex. With SANS, we demonstrate, as a proof-of-principle, that isotope labeling and contrast matching (CM) can be combined to probe the bound state structure of an RNA within a selectively deuterated RNA:RNA complex. Furthermore, we show that experimental scattering data can validate and improve predicted AlphaFold 3 RNA:RNA complex structures to reflect its solution structure. Our work demonstrates that in silico modeling, SAXS, and CM-SANS can be used in concert to directly analyze conformational changes within RNAs when in complex, enhancing our understanding of RNA structure in functional assemblies.

Advances in nucleic acid-targeted therapies for cardiovascular disease prevention

Nucleic acid-based therapies are being rapidly developed for prevention and management of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Remarkable advancements have been achieved in the delivery, safety, and effectiveness of these therapeutics in the past decade. These therapies can also modulate therapeutic targets that cannot be sufficiently addressed using traditional drugs or antibodies. Among the nucleic acid-targeted therapeutics under development for CVD prevention are RNA-targeted approaches, including antisense oligonucleotides (ASO), small interfering RNAs (siRNA), and novel genome editing techniques. Genetic studies have identified potential therapeutic targets that are suggested to play a causative role in development and progression of CVD. RNA- and DNA-targeted therapeutics can be particularly well delivered to the liver, where atherogenic lipoproteins and angiotensinogen (AGT) are produced. Current targets in lipid metabolism include proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9), apolipoprotein A (ApoA), apolipoprotein C3 (ApoC3), angiopoietin-like 3 (ANGPTL3). Several large-scale clinical development programs for nucleic acid-targeted therapies in cardiovascular prevention are under way, which may also be attractive from a therapy adherence point of view, given the long action of these therapeutics. In addition to genome editing, the concept of gene transfer is presently under assessment in preclinical and clinical investigations as a potential approach for addressing low-density lipoprotein receptor deficiency. Furthermore, ongoing research is exploring the use of RNA-targeted therapies to treat arterial hypertension by reducing hepatic angiotensinogen (AGT) production. This review summarizes the rapid translation of siRNA and ASO therapeutics as well as gene editing into clinical studies to treat dyslipidemia and arterial hypertension for CVD prevention. It also outlines potential innovative therapeutic options that are likely relevant to the future of cardiovascular medicine.

PicoGreen assay for nucleic acid quantification - Applications, challenges, and solutions

Various analytical methods and reagents have been employed for nucleic acid analysis in cells, biological fluids, and formulations. Standard techniques like gel electrophoresis and qRT-PCR are widely used for qualitative and quantitative nucleic acid analysis. However, these methods can be time-consuming and labor-intensive, with limitations such as inapplicability to small RNA at low concentrations and high costs associated with qRT-PCR reagents and instruments. As an alternative, PicoGreen (PG) has emerged as a valuable method for the quantitative analysis of nucleic acids. PG, a fluorescent dye, enables the quantitation of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) or double-stranded RNA, including miRNA mimic and siRNA, in solution. It is also applicable to DNA and RNA analysis within cells using techniques like FACS and fluorescence microscopy. Despite its advantages, PG's fluorescence intensity is affected by various experimental conditions, such as pH, salts, and chemical reagents. This review explores the recent applications of PG as a rapid, cost-effective, robust, and accurate assay tool for nucleic acid quantification. We also address the limitations of PG and discuss approaches to overcome these challenges, recognizing the expanding range of its applications.

miR-1290 induces endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition and promotes vascular restenosis after angioplasty by targeting FGF2

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) is an important reason for restenosis but the underlying mechanisms need to be further explored. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to screen significantly different microRNAs (miRNAs) and assess their functions and downstream pathways.

METHODS

This study screened several miRNAs with significant differences between human arterial segments from restenosis patients and healthy volunteers using whole transcriptome resequencing and real-time quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR). We explored the correlation between miR-1290 and EndMT using Western blot, qRT-PCR, Pearson correlation analysis and further functional gain and loss experiments. Subsequently, we identified the direct downstream target of miR-1290 by bioinformatics analysis, RNA pull-down, double Luciferase reporter gene and other functional experiments. Finally, rat carotid artery balloon injury model demonstrated the therapeutic potential of miR-1290 regulator.

RESULTS

We screened 129 differentially expressed miRNAs. Among them, miR-1290 levels were significantly higher in restenosis arteries than in healthy arteries, and as expected, EndMT was functionally enhanced with miR-1290 overexpression and comparatively weakened when miR-1290 was knocked down. In addition, fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF2) was established as the downstream target of miR-1290. Finally, we utilized an animal model and found that low miR-1290 levels could alleviate EndMT and the progression of restenosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrated the strong regulatory effects of miR-1290 on EndMT, endometrial hyperplasia and restenosis, which could be useful as biomarker and therapeutic target for stent implantation in patients with arterial occlusive disease of the lower extremities.

Proteolysis-targeting drug delivery system (ProDDS): integrating targeted protein degradation concepts into formulation design

Targeted protein degradation (TPD) has emerged as a revolutionary paradigm in drug discovery and development, offering a promising avenue to tackle challenging therapeutic targets. Unlike traditional drug discovery approaches that focus on inhibiting protein function, TPD aims to eliminate proteins of interest (POIs) using modular chimeric structures. This is achieved through the utilization of proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs), which redirect POIs to E3 ubiquitin ligases, rendering them for degradation by the cellular ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS). Additionally, other TPD technologies such as lysosome-targeting chimeras (LYTACs) and autophagy-based protein degraders facilitate the transportation of proteins to  endo-lysosomal or autophagy-lysosomal pathways for degradation, respectively. Despite significant growth in preclinical TPD research, many chimeras fail to progress beyond this stage in the drug development. Various factors contribute to the limited success of TPD agents, including a significant hurdle of inadequate delivery to the target site. Integrating TPD into delivery platforms could surmount the challenges of in vivo applications of TPD strategies by reshaping their pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic profiles. These proteolysis-targeting drug delivery systems (ProDDSs) exhibit superior delivery performance, enhanced targetability, and reduced off-tissue side effects. In this review, we will survey the latest progress in TPD-inspired drug delivery systems, highlight the importance of introducing delivery ideas or technologies to the development of protein degraders, outline design principles of protein degrader-inspired delivery systems, discuss the current challenges, and provide an outlook on future opportunities in this field.

Delivery of miRNAs Using Nanoparticles for the Treatment of Osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma is the predominant primary malignant bone tumor that poses a significant global health challenge. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) that regulate gene expression are associated with osteosarcoma pathogenesis. Thus, miRNAs are potential therapeutic targets for osteosarcoma. Nanoparticles, widely used for targeted drug delivery, facilitate miRNA-based osteosarcoma treatment. Numerous studies have focused on miRNA delivery using nanoparticles to inhibit the progress of osteosarcoma. Polymer-based, lipid-based, inorganic-based nanoparticles and extracellular vesicles were used to deliver miRNAs for the treatment of osteosarcoma. They can be modified to enhance drug loading and delivery capabilities. Also, miRNA delivery was combined with traditional therapies, for example chemotherapy, to treat osteosarcoma. Consequently, miRNA delivery offers promising therapeutic avenues for osteosarcoma, providing renewed hope for patients. This review emphasizes the studies utilizing nanoparticles for miRNA delivery in osteosarcoma treatment, then introduced and summarized the nanoparticles in detail. And it also discusses the prospects for clinical applications.

Coding Therapeutic Nucleic Acids from Recombinant Proteins to Next-Generation Vaccines: Current Uses, Limitations, and Future Horizons

This study aims to highlight the potential use of cTNAs in therapeutic applications. The COVID-19 pandemic has led to significant use of coding therapeutic nucleic acids (cTNAs) in terms of DNA and mRNA in the development of vaccines. The use of cTNAs resulted in a paradigm shift in the therapeutic field. However, the injection of DNA or mRNA into the human body transforms cells into biological factories to produce the necessary proteins. Despite the success of cTNAs in the production of corona vaccines, they have several limitations such as instability, inability to cross biomembranes, immunogenicity, and the possibility of integration into the human genome. The chemical modification and utilization of smart drug delivery cargoes resolve cTNAs therapeutic problems. The success of cTNAs in corona vaccine production provides perspective for the eradication of influenza viruses, Zika virus, HIV, respiratory syncytial virus, Ebola virus, malaria, and future pandemics by quick vaccine design. Moreover, the progress cTNAs technology is promising for the development of therapy for genetic disease, cancer therapy, and currently incurable diseases.

The anti-cancer properties of miR-340 plasmid-chitosan complexes (miR-340 CC) on murine model of breast cancer

MiRNA-340 (miR-340) has been found to have tumour-suppressing effects in breast cancer (BC). However, for clinical use, miRNAs need to be delivered safely and effectively to protect them from degradation. In our previous study, we used chitosan complexes as a safe carrier with anti-cancer properties to deliver miR-340 plasmid into 4T1 cells. This study explored further information concerning the anti-cancer impacts of both chitosan and miR-340 plasmid in a murine model of BC. Mice bearing 4T1 cells were intra-tumorally administered miR-340 plasmid-chitosan complexes (miR-340 CC). Afterwards, the potential of miR-340 CC in promoting anti-tumour immune responses was evaluated. MiR-340 CC significantly reduced tumour size, inhibited metastasis, and prolonged the survival of mice. MiR-340 CC up-regulates P-27 gene expression related to cancer cell apoptosis, and down-regulates gene expressions involved in angiogenesis and metastasis (breast regression protein-39 (BRP-39)) and CD163 as an anti-inflammatory macrophages (MQs) marker. Furthermore, CD47 expression as a MQs immune check-point was remarkably decreased after miR-340 CC treatment. The level of IL-12 in splenocytes of miR-340 CC treated mice increased, while the level of IL-10 decreased, indicating anti-cancer immune responses. Our findings display that miR-340 CC can be considered as a promising therapy in BC.

Transforming Cell-Drug Interaction through Granular Hydrogel-Mediated Delivery of Polyplex Nanoparticles for Enhanced Safety and Extended Efficacy in Gene Therapy

The utilization of hydrogels for DNA/cationic polymer polyplex nanoparticle (polyplex) delivery has significantly advanced gene therapy in tissue regeneration and cancer treatment. However, persistent challenges related to the efficacy and safety of encapsulated polyplexes, stemming from issues such as aggregation, degradation, or difficulties in controlled release during or postintegration with hydrogel scaffolds, necessitate further exploration. Here, we introduce an injectable gene therapy gel achieved by incorporating concentrated polyplexes onto densely packed hydrogel microparticles (HMPs). Polyplexes, when uniformly adhered to the gene therapy gel through reversible electrostatic interactions, can detach from the HMP surface in a controlled manner, contrasting with free polyplexes, and thereby reducing dose-dependent toxicity during transfection. Additionally, the integration of RGD cell adhesion peptides enhances the scaffolding characteristics of the gel, facilitating cell adhesion, migration, and further minimizing toxicity during gene drug administration. Notably, despite the overall transfection efficiency showing average performance, utilizing confocal microscopy to meticulously observe and analyze the cellular states infiltrating into various depths of the gene therapy gel resulted in the groundbreaking discovery of significantly enhanced local transfection efficiency, with primary cell transfection approaching 80%. This phenomenon could be potentially attributed to the granular hydrogel-mediated delivery of polyplex nanoparticles, which revolutionizes the spatial and temporal distribution and thus the "encounter" mode between polyplexes and cells. Moreover, the gene therapy gel's intrinsic injectability and self-healing properties offer ease of administration, making it a highly promising candidate as a novel gene transfection gel dressing with significant potential across various fields, including regenerative medicine and innovative living materials.

Delivery of mRNA Using Biomimetic Vectors: Progress and Challenges

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is an emerging class of therapeutic agents for treating a wide range of diseases. However, due to the instability and low cell transfection rate of naked mRNA, the expression of delivered mRNA in target cells or tissues in vivo requires delivery strategies. Biomimetic vectors hold advantages such as high biocompatibility, tissue specific targeting ability and efficient delivery mechanisms, potentially overcoming challenges faced by other delivery vectors. In this review, biomimetic vector-based mRNA delivery systems are summarized and discuss the possible challenges and prospects of such delivery systems, which may contribute to the progress and application of mRNA-based therapy in the biomedical field.

Recent Advances in RNA Interference-Based Therapy for Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Emphasis on siRNA

Even though RNA treatments were first proposed as a way to change aberrant signaling in cancer, research in this field is currently ongoing. The term "RNAi" refers to the use of several RNAi technologies, including ribozymes, riboswitches, Aptamers, small interfering RNA (siRNA), antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), and CRISPR/Cas9 technology. The siRNA therapy has already achieved a remarkable feat by revolutionizing the treatment arena of cancers. Unlike small molecules and antibodies, which need administration every three months or even every two years, RNAi may be given every quarter to attain therapeutic results. In order to overcome complex challenges, delivering siRNAs to the targeted tissues and cells effectively and safely and improving the effectiveness of siRNAs in terms of their action, stability, specificity, and potential adverse consequences are required. In this context, the three primary techniques of siRNA therapies for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are accomplished for inhibiting angiogenesis, decreasing cell proliferation, and promoting apoptosis, are discussed in this review. We also deliberate targeting issues, immunogenic reactions to siRNA therapy, and the difficulties with their intrinsic chemistry and transportation.

A Bioswitchable MiRNA Delivery System: Tetrahedral Framework DNA-Based miRNA Delivery System for Applications in Wound Healing

The human body's primary line of defense, the skin, is especially prone to harm. Although microRNA (miRNA)-based therapies have attracted increasing attention for skin wound healing, their applications remain limited owing to a range of issues. Tetrahedral framework DNA (tFNA), a nanomaterial possessing nucleic acid characteristics, exhibits an excellent biocompatibility, in addition to anti-inflammatory and transdermal delivery capabilities, and can accelerate skin wound healing. Due to its potential to exert synergistic action with therapeutic miRNA, tFNA has been considered an ideal vehicle for miRNA therapy. The design and synthesis of a bioswitchable miRNA delivery system (BiRDS) is reported, which contains three miRNAs as well as a nucleic acid core to maximize the loading capacity while preserving the characteristics of tFNA. A high stability, excellent permeability of cells as well as tissues and good biological compatibility are demonstrated. By selectively inhibiting heparin-binding epidermal growth factor (HB-EGF), the BiRDS can inhibit the NF-κB pathway while simultaneously controlling the PTEN/Akt pathway. As a result, the BiRDS helps wound healing go through the inflammation to the proliferative phase. This study demonstrates the advantages of the BiRDS in miRNA-based therapy and provides new research ideas for the treatment of skin-related diseases.

Characterization of m6A Modifiers and RNA Modifications in Uterine Fibroids

Uterine leiomyoma or fibroids are prevalent noncancerous tumors of the uterine muscle layer, yet their origin and development remain poorly understood. We analyzed RNA expression profiles of 15 epigenetic mediators in uterine fibroids compared to myometrium using publicly available RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data. To validate our findings, we performed RT-qPCR on a separate cohort of uterine fibroids targeting these modifiers confirming our RNA-seq data. We then examined protein profiles of key N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modifiers in fibroids and their matched myometrium, showing no significant differences in concordance with our RNA expression profiles. To determine RNA modification abundance, mRNA and small RNA from fibroids and matched myometrium were analyzed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry identifying prevalent m6A and 11 other known modifiers. However, no aberrant expression in fibroids was detected. We then mined a previously published dataset and identified differential expression of m6A modifiers that were specific to fibroid genetic subtype. Our analysis also identified m6A consensus motifs on genes previously identified to be dysregulated in uterine fibroids. Overall, using state-of-the-art mass spectrometry, RNA expression, and protein profiles, we characterized and identified differentially expressed m6A modifiers in relation to driver mutations. Despite the use of several different approaches, we identified limited differential expression of RNA modifiers and associated modifications in uterine fibroids. However, considering the highly heterogenous genomic and cellular nature of fibroids, and the possible contribution of single molecule m6A modifications to fibroid pathology, there is a need for greater in-depth characterization of m6A marks and modifiers in a larger and diverse patient cohort.

Current and future perspectives on the regulation and functions of miR-545 in cancer development

Micro ribonucleic acids (miRNAs) are a highly conserved class of single-stranded non-coding RNAs. Within the miR-545/374a cluster, miR-545 resides in the intron of the long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) FTX on Xq13.2. The precursor form, pre-miR-545, is cleaved to generate two mature miRNAs, miR-545-3p and miR-545-5p. Remarkably, these two miRNAs exhibit distinct aberrant expression patterns in different cancers; however, their expression in colorectal cancer remains controversial. Notably, miR-545-3p is affected by 15 circular RNAs (circRNAs) and 10 long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and it targets 27 protein-coding genes (PCGs) that participate in the regulation of four signaling pathways. In contrast, miR-545-5p is regulated by one circRNA and five lncRNAs, it targets six PCGs and contributes to the regulation of one signaling pathway. Both miR-545-3p and miR-545-5p affect crucial cellular behaviors, including cell cycle, proliferation, apoptosis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, invasion, and migration. Although low miR-545-3p expression is associated with poor prognosis in three cancer types, studies on miR-545-5p are yet to be reported. miR-545-3p operates within a diverse range of regulatory networks, thereby augmenting the efficacy of cancer chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy. Conversely, miR-545-5p enhances immunotherapy efficacy by inhibiting T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing-3 (TIM-3) expression. In summary, miR-545 holds immense potential as a cancer biomarker and therapeutic target. The aberrant expression and regulatory mechanisms of miR-545 in cancer warrant further investigation.

Ultrasound-Mediated Lysozyme Microbubbles Targeting NOX4 Knockdown Alleviate Cisplatin-Exposed Cochlear Hair Cell Ototoxicity

The nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase 4 (NOX4) protein plays an essential role in the cisplatin (CDDP)-induced generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In this study, we evaluated the suitability of ultrasound-mediated lysozyme microbubble (USMB) cavitation to enhance NOX4 siRNA transfection in vitro and ex vivo. Lysozyme-shelled microbubbles (LyzMBs) were constructed and designed for siNOX4 loading as siNOX4/LyzMBs. We investigated different siNOX4-based cell transfection approaches, including naked siNOX4, LyzMB-mixed siNOX4, and siNOX4-loaded LyzMBs, and compared their silencing effects in CDDP-treated HEI-OC1 cells and mouse organ of Corti explants. Transfection efficiencies were evaluated by quantifying the cellular uptake of cyanine 3 (Cy3) fluorescein-labeled siRNA. In vitro experiments showed that the high transfection efficacy (48.18%) of siNOX4 to HEI-OC1 cells mediated by US and siNOX4-loaded LyzMBs significantly inhibited CDDP-induced ROS generation to almost the basal level. The ex vivo CDDP-treated organ of Corti explants of mice showed an even more robust silencing effect of the NOX4 gene in the siNOX4/LyzMB groups treated with US sonication than without US sonication, with a marked abolition of CDDP-induced ROS generation and cytotoxicity. Loading of siNOX4 on LyzMBs can stabilize siNOX4 and prevent its degradation, thereby enhancing the transfection and silencing effects when combined with US sonication. This USMB-derived therapy modality for alleviating CDDP-induced ototoxicity may be suitable for future clinical applications.

Oral administration of herbal oligonucleotide drug JGL-sRNA-h7 ameliorates hyperglycemia in db/db mice and beagle dogs

Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a prevalent metabolic disease, posing a considerable threat to public health. Oligonucleotide drugs have proven to be a promising field of therapy for the diseases. In this study, we reported that a herbal small RNA (sRNA), JGL-sRNA-h7 (B34735529, F1439.L002444.A11), could exhibit potent hypoglycemic effects by targeting glucose-6-phosphatase. Oral administration of sphingosine (d18:1)-JGL-sRNA-h7 bencaosomes ameliorated hyperglycemia and diabetic kidney injury better than metformin in db/db mice. Furthermore, glucose tolerance was also improved in sphingosine (d18:1)-JGL-sRNA-h7 bencaosomes-treated beagle dogs. Our study indicates that JGL-sRNA-h7 could be a promising hypoglycemic oligonucleotide drug.

Dissolving microneedles for transdermal drug delivery in cancer immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is an important approach in cancer treatment. Transdermal administration is emerging as a promising method for delivering immunotherapeutics. Dissolving microneedles are made mainly of soluble or biodegradable polymers and have garnered widespread attention due to their painlessness, safety, convenience, excellent drug loading capacity, and easy availability of various materials, making them an ideal transdermal delivery system. This review comprehensively summarized the preparation methods, materials, and applications of dissolving microneedles in cancer vaccines, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and adoptive cell therapy. Additionally, the challenges and perspectives associated with their future clinical translation are discussed.

Ckip-1 3'UTR alleviates prolonged sleep deprivation induced cardiac dysfunction by activating CaMKK2/AMPK/cTNI pathway

Sleep deprivation (SD) has emerged as a critical concern impacting human health, leading to significant damage to the cardiovascular system. However, the underlying mechanisms are still unclear, and the development of targeted drugs is lagging. Here, we used mice to explore the effects of prolonged SD on cardiac structure and function. Echocardiography analysis revealed that cardiac function was significantly decreased in mice after five weeks of SD. Real-time quantitative PCR (RT-q-PCR) and Masson staining analysis showed that cardiac remodeling marker gene Anp (atrial natriuretic peptide) and fibrosis were increased, Elisa assay of serum showed that the levels of creatine kinase (CK), creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB), ANP, brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and cardiac troponin T (cTn-T) were increased after SD, suggesting that cardiac remodeling and injury occurred. Transcript sequencing analysis indicated that genes involved in the regulation of calcium signaling pathway, dilated cardiomyopathy, and cardiac muscle contraction were changed after SD. Accordingly, Western blotting analysis demonstrated that the cardiac-contraction associated CaMKK2/AMPK/cTNI pathway was inhibited. Since our preliminary research has confirmed the vital role of Casein Kinase-2 -Interacting Protein-1 (CKIP-1, also known as PLEKHO1) in cardiac remodeling regulation. Here, we found the levels of the 3' untranslated region of Ckip-1 (Ckip-1 3'UTR) decreased, while the coding sequence of Ckip-1 (Ckip-1 CDS) remained unchanged after SD. Significantly, adenovirus-mediated overexpression of Ckip-1 3'UTR alleviated SD-induced cardiac dysfunction and remodeling by activating CaMKK2/AMPK/cTNI pathway, which proposed the therapeutic potential of Ckip-1 3'UTR in treating SD-induced heart disease.

STAT6-targeting antisense oligonucleotides against solitary fibrous tumor

Solitary fibrous tumor (SFT) is a rare, non-hereditary soft tissue sarcoma thought to originate from fibroblastic mesenchymal stem cells. The etiology of SFT is thought to be due to an environmental intrachromosomal gene fusion between NGFI-A-binding protein 2 (NAB2) and signal transducer and activator protein 6 (STAT6) genes on chromosome 12, wherein the activation domain of STAT6 is fused with the DNA-binding domain of NAB2 resulting in the oncogenesis of SFT. All NAB2-STAT6 fusion variations discovered in SFTs contain the C-terminal of STAT6 transcript, and thus can serve as target site for antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs)-based therapies. Indeed, our in vitro studies show the STAT6 3' untranslated region (UTR)-targeting ASO (ASO 993523) was able to reduce expression of NAB2-STAT6 fusion transcripts in multiple SFT cell models with high efficiency (half-maximal inhibitory concentration: 116-300 nM). Encouragingly, in vivo treatment of SFT patient-derived xenograft mouse models with ASO 993523 resulted in acceptable tolerability profiles, reduced expression of NAB2-STAT6 fusion transcripts in xenograft tissues (21.9%), and, importantly, reduced tumor growth (32.4% decrease in tumor volume compared with the untreated control). Taken together, our study established ASO 993523 as a potential agent for the treatment of SFTs.

Liposome-lentivirus for miRNA therapy with molecular mechanism study

BACKGROUND

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) play a vital role in the occurrence, maintenance, and recurrence of solid tumors. Although, miR-145-5p can inhibit CSCs survival, poor understanding of the underlying mechanisms hamperes further therapeutic optimization for patients. Lentivirus with remarkable transduction efficiency is the most commonly used RNA carrier in research, but has shown limited tumor-targeting capability.

METHODS

We have applied liposome to decorate lentivirus surface thereby yielding liposome-lentivirus hybrid-based carriers, termed miR-145-5p-lentivirus nanoliposome (MRL145), and systematically analyzed their potential therapeutic effects on liver CSCs (LCSCs).

RESULTS

MRL145 exhibited high delivery efficiency and potent anti-tumor efficacy under in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, the overexpressed miR-145-5p can significantly suppress the self-renewal, migration, and invasion abilities of LCSCs by targeting Collagen Type IV Alpha 3 Chain (COL4A3). Importantly, COL4A3 can promote phosphorylating GSK-3β at ser 9 (p-GSK-3β S9) to inactivate GSK3β, and facilitate translocation of β-catenin into the nucleus to activate the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, thereby promoting self-renewal, migration, and invasion of LCSCs. Interestingly, COL4A3 could attenuate the cellular autophagy through modulating GSK3β/Gli3/VMP1 axis to promote self-renewal, migration, and invasion of LCSCs.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide new insights in mode of action of miR-145-5p in LCSCs therapy and indicates that liposome-virus hybrid carriers hold great promise in miRNA delivery.

Fluorocarbon-DNA Conjugates for Enhanced Cellular Delivery: Formation of a Densely Packed DNA Nano-Assembly

Forming nano-assemblies is essential for delivering DNA conjugates into cells, with the DNA density in the nano-assembly playing an important role in determining the uptake efficiency. In this study, we developed a strategy for the facile synthesis of DNA strands bearing perfluoroalkyl (RF) groups (RF-DNA conjugates) and investigated how they affect cellular uptake. An RF-DNA conjugate bearing a long RF group at the DNA terminus forms a nano-assembly with a high DNA density, which results in greatly enhanced cellular uptake. The uptake mechanism is mediated by clathrin-dependent endocytosis. The use of RF groups to densely assemble negatively charged DNA is a useful strategy for designing drug delivery carriers.

[« ReNAissance » of biotherapies with RNA]

Many diseases originate from either the absence or defective expression of a given protein. For some of them, the lacking protein is secreted or can be taken up by cells when delivered exogenously. In such cases, therapies initially involved administering the physiological protein extracted from human tissues. Subsequently, genetic engineering enabled the production of proteins through cell fermentation after introducing the corresponding gene. For many other pathologies, the deficient protein cannot be delivered exogenously. Thus, an endogenous production of the therapeutic protein by the cells themselves is necessary. Messenger RNA (mRNA) technology, like its predecessor DNA, aims to supplement the genetic information needed to produce the therapeutic protein within the cells. However, unlike DNA-based therapies, mRNA transfer allows for transient expression of the protein of interest, which offers an advantage in numerous pathologies. Nonetheless, mastering the quantity, quality, and spatio-temporal regulation of protein production encoded by therapeutic mRNA remains a significant challenge for the development of this approach.

Advances in local drug delivery technologies for improved rheumatoid arthritis therapy

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease characterized by an inflammatory microenvironment and cartilage erosion within the joint cavity. Currently, antirheumatic agents yield significant outcomes in RA treatment. However, their systemic administration is limited by inadequate drug retention in lesion areas and non-specific tissue distribution, reducing efficacy and increasing risks such as infection due to systemic immunosuppression. Development in local drug delivery technologies, such as nanostructure-based and scaffold-assisted delivery platforms, facilitate enhanced drug accumulation at the target site, controlled drug release, extended duration of the drug action, reduced both dosage and administration frequency, and ultimately improve therapeutic outcomes with minimized damage to healthy tissues. In this review, we introduced pathogenesis and clinically used therapeutic agents for RA, comprehensively summarized locally administered nanostructure-based and scaffold-assisted drug delivery systems, aiming at improving the therapeutic efficiency of RA by alleviating the inflammatory response, preventing bone erosion and promoting cartilage regeneration. In addition, the challenges and future prospects of local delivery for clinical translation in RA are discussed.

Novel diamine-scaffold based N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc)-siRNA conjugate: synthesis and in vivo activities

GalNAc-conjugated siRNA has shown remarkable potential in liver-targeted delivery in recent years. In general, tetrahydroxymethylmethane or other branching clusters constitute the basis of GalNAc's structure, which yields trivalent or tetravalent ligands. A novel diamine-scaffold GalNAc conjugate was synthesized and evaluated for its efficiency in siRNA administration. It exhibits comparable siRNA delivery effectiveness to a GalNAc NAG37 phase II clinical drug candidate targeting ANGPTL3. In addition, it exhibits more powerful silencing activity when connected to the 3'-end of the sense strand with an additional PS-linkage instead of a PO linkage between the ligand and the oligomer compared to a GalNAc L96 standard targeting TTR. Taken together, the incorporation of a diamine-scaffold into the GalNAc conjugate structure has potential in the field of gene therapy.

Cationic cycloamylose based nucleic acid nanocarriers

Nucleic acid delivery by viral and non-viral methods has been a cornerstone for the contemporary gene therapy aimed at correcting the defective genes, replacing of the missing genes, or downregulating the expression of anomalous genes is highly desirable for the management of various diseases. Ostensibly, it becomes paramount for the delivery vectors to intersect the biological barriers for accessing their destined site within the cellular environment. However, the lipophilic nature of biological membranes and their potential to limit the entry of large sized, charged, hydrophilic molecules thus presenting a sizeable challenge for the cellular integration of negatively charged nucleic acids. Furthermore, the susceptibility of nucleic acids towards the degrading enzymes (nucleases) in the lysosomes present in cytoplasm is another matter of concern for their cellular and nuclear delivery. Hence, there is a pressing need for the identification and development of cationic delivery systems which encapsulate the cargo nucleic acids where the charge facilitates their cellular entry by evading the membrane barriers, and the encapsulation shields them from the enzymatic attack in cytoplasm. Cycloamylose bearing a closed loop conformation presents a robust candidature in this regard owing to its remarkable encapsulating tendency towards nucleic acids including siRNA, CpG DNA, and siRNA. The presence of numerous hydroxyl groups on the cycloamylose periphery provides sites for its chemical modification for the introduction of cationic groups, including spermine, (3-Chloro-2 hydroxypropyl) trimethylammonium chloride (Q188), and diethyl aminoethane (DEAE). The resulting cationic cycloamylose possesses a remarkable transfection efficiency and provides stability to cargo oligonucleotides against endonucleases, in addition to modulating the undesirable side effects such as unwanted immune stimulation. Cycloamylose is known to interact with the cell membranes where they release certain membrane components such as phospholipids and cholesterol thereby resulting in membrane destabilization and permeabilization. Furthermore, cycloamylose derivatives also serve as formulation excipients for improving the efficiency of other gene delivery systems. This review delves into the various vector and non-vector-based gene delivery systems, their advantages, and limitations, eventually leading to the identification of cycloamylose as an ideal candidate for nucleic acid delivery. The synthesis of cationic cycloamylose is briefly discussed in each section followed by its application for specific delivery/transfection of a particular nucleic acid.

mRNA-responsive two-in-one nanodrug for enhanced anti-tumor chemo-gene therapy

The combination of chemotherapy and gene therapy holds great promise for the treatment and eradication of tumors. However, due to significant differences in physicochemical properties between chemotherapeutic agents and functional nucleic acid drugs, direct integration into a single nano-agent is hindered, impeding the design and construction of an effective co-delivery nano-platform for synergistic anti-tumor treatments. In this study, we have developed an mRNA-responsive two-in-one nano-drug for effective anti-tumor therapy by the direct self-assembly of 2'-fluoro-substituted antisense DNA against P-glycoprotein (2'F-DNA) and chemo drug paclitaxel (PTX). The 2'-fluoro modification of DNA could significantly increase the interaction between the therapeutic nucleic acid and the chemotherapeutic drug, promoting the successful formation of 2'F-DNA/PTX nanospheres (2'F-DNA/PTX NSs). Due to the one-step self-assembly process without additional carrier materials, the prepared 2'F-DNA/PTX NSs exhibited considerable loading efficiency and bioavailability of PTX. In the presence of endogenous P-glycoprotein mRNA, the 2'F-DNA/PTX NSs were disassembled. The released 2'F-DNA could down-regulate the expression of P-glycoprotein, which decreased the multidrug resistance of tumor cells and enhanced the chemotherapy effect caused by PTX. In this way, the 2'F-DNA/PTX NSs could synergistically induce the apoptosis of tumor cells and realize the combined anti-tumor therapy. This strategy might provide a new tool to explore functional intracellular co-delivery nano-systems with high bioavailability and exhibit potential promising in the applications of accurate diagnosis and treatment of tumors.

Physiological Barriers and Strategies of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles for Nucleic Acid Drug Delivery

Lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) are currently the most promising vehicles for nucleic acid drug (NAD) delivery. Although their clinical applications have achieved success, the NAD delivery efficiency and safety are still unsatisfactory, which are, to a large extent, due to the existence of multi-level physiological barriers in vivo. It is important to elucidate the interactions between these barriers and LBNPs, which will guide more rational design of efficient NAD vehicles with low adverse effects and facilitate broader applications of nucleic acid therapeutics. This review describes the obstacles and challenges of biological barriers to NAD delivery at systemic, organ, sub-organ, cellular, and subcellular levels. The strategies to overcome these barriers are comprehensively reviewed, mainly including physically/chemically engineering LBNPs and directly modifying physiological barriers by auxiliary treatments. Then the potentials and challenges for successful translation of these preclinical studies into the clinic are discussed. In the end, a forward look at the strategies on manipulating protein corona (PC) is addressed, which may pull off the trick of overcoming those physiological barriers and significantly improve the efficacy and safety of LBNP-based NADs delivery.

A Review of Key Regulators of Steady-State and Ineffective Erythropoiesis

Erythropoiesis is initiated with the transformation of multipotent hematopoietic stem cells into committed erythroid progenitor cells in the erythroblastic islands of the bone marrow in adults. These cells undergo several stages of differentiation, including erythroblast formation, normoblast formation, and finally, the expulsion of the nucleus to form mature red blood cells. The erythropoietin (EPO) pathway, which is activated by hypoxia, induces stimulation of the erythroid progenitor cells and the promotion of their proliferation and survival as well as maturation and hemoglobin synthesis. The regulation of erythropoiesis is a complex and dynamic interaction of a myriad of factors, such as transcription factors (GATA-1, STAT5), cytokines (IL-3, IL-6, IL-11), iron metabolism and cell cycle regulators. Multiple microRNAs are involved in erythropoiesis, mediating cell growth and development, regulating oxidative stress, erythrocyte maturation and differentiation, hemoglobin synthesis, transferrin function and iron homeostasis. This review aims to explore the physiology of steady-state erythropoiesis and to outline key mechanisms involved in ineffective erythropoiesis linked to anemia, chronic inflammation, stress, and hematological malignancies. Studying aberrations in erythropoiesis in various diseases allows a more in-depth understanding of the heterogeneity within erythroid populations and the development of gene therapies to treat hematological disorders.

Trehalose-polyamine/DNA nanocomplexes: impact of vector architecture on cell and organ transfection selectivity

A novel family of precision-engineered gene vectors with well-defined structures built on trehalose and trehalose-based macrocycles (cyclotrehalans) comprising linear or cyclic polyamine heads have been synthesized through procedures that exploit click chemistry reactions. The strategy was conceived to enable systematic structural variations and, at the same time, ensuring that enantiomerically pure vectors are obtained. Notably, changes in the molecular architecture translated into topological differences at the nanoscale upon co-assembly with plasmid DNA, especially regarding the presence of regions with short- or long-range internal order as observed by TEM. In vitro and in vivo experiments further evidenced a significant impact on cell and organ transfection selectivity. Altogether, the results highlight the potential of trehalose-polyamine/pDNA nanocomplex monoformulations to achieve targeting transfection without the need for any additional cell- or organ-sorting component.

Role of microRNAs in host defense against porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infection: a hidden front line

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is one of the most globally devastating viruses threatening the swine industry worldwide. Substantial advancements have been achieved in recent years towards comprehending the pathogenesis of PRRSV infection and the host response, involving both innate and adaptive immune responses. Not only a multitude of host proteins actively participate in intricate interactions with viral proteins, but microRNAs (miRNAs) also play a pivotal role in the host response to PRRSV infection. If a PRRSV-host interaction at the protein level is conceptualized as the front line of the battle between pathogens and host cells, then their fight at the RNA level resembles the hidden front line. miRNAs are endogenous small non-coding RNAs of approximately 20-25 nucleotides (nt) that primarily regulate the degradation or translation inhibition of target genes by binding to the 3'-untranslated regions (UTRs). Insights into the roles played by viral proteins and miRNAs in the host response can enhance our comprehensive understanding of the pathogenesis of PRRSV infection. The intricate interplay between viral proteins and cellular targets during PRRSV infection has been extensively explored. This review predominantly centers on the contemporary understanding of the host response to PRRSV infection at the RNA level, in particular, focusing on the twenty-six miRNAs that affect viral replication and the innate immune response.

Biodistribution of Therapeutic Small Interfering RNAs Delivered with Lipid-Substituted Polyethylenimine-Based Delivery Systems

Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) have emerged as a powerful tool to manipulate gene expression in vitro. However, their potential therapeutic application encounters significant challenges, such as degradation in vivo, limited cellular uptake, and restricted biodistribution, among others. This study evaluates the siRNA delivery efficiency of three different lipid-substituted polyethylenimine (PEI)-based carriers, named Leu-Fect A-C, to different organs in vivo, including xenograft tumors, when injected into the bloodstream of mice. The siRNA analysis was undertaken by stem-loop RT-PCR, followed by qPCR or digital droplet PCR. Formulating siRNAs with a Leu-Fect series of carriers generated nanoparticles that effectively delivered the siRNAs into K652 and MV4-11 cells, both models of leukemia. The Leu-Fect carriers were able to successfully deliver BCR-Abl and FLT3 siRNAs into leukemia xenograft tumors in mice. All three carriers demonstrated significantly enhanced siRNA delivery into organs other than the liver, including the xenograft tumors. Preferential biodistribution of siRNAs was observed in the lungs and spleen. Among the delivery systems, Leu-Fect A exhibited the highest biodistribution into organs. In conclusion, lipid-substituted PEI-based delivery systems offer improvements in addressing pharmacokinetic challenges associated with siRNA-based therapies, thus opening avenues for their potential translation into clinical practice.

Design and synthesis of nucleotidyl lipids and their application in the targeted delivery of siG12D for pancreatic cancer therapy

Nucleic acid drugs are attracting significant attention as prospective therapeutics. However, their efficacy is hindered by challenges in penetrating cell membranes and reaching target tissues, limiting their applications. Nucleotidyl lipids, with their specific intermolecular interactions such as H-bonding and π-π stacking, offer a promising solution as gene delivery vehicles. In this study, a novel series of nucleotide-based amphiphiles were synthesized. These lipid molecules possess the ability to self-assemble into spherical vesicles of appropriate size and zeta potential in aqueous solution. Furthermore, their complexes with oligonucleotides demonstrated favorable biocompatibility and exhibited antiproliferative effects against a broad range of cancer cells. Additionally, when combined with the cationic lipid CLD, these complexes displayed promising in vitro performance and in vivo efficacy. By incorporating DSPE-PEGylated cRGD into the formulation, targeted accumulation of siG12D in pancreatic cancer cells increased from approximately 6% to 18%, leading to effective treatment outcomes (intravenous administration, 1 mg/kg). This finding holds significant importance for the liposomal delivery of nucleic acid drugs to extrahepatic tissues.

Identification of glycosylated nucleosides in small synthetic glyco-RNAs

Recently, the post-transcriptional modification of RNA with N-glycans was reported, changing the paradigm that RNAs are not commonly N-glycosylated. Moreover, glycan modifications of RNA are investigated for therapeutic targeting purposes. But the glyco-RNA field is in its infancy with many challenges to overcome. One question is how to accurately characterize glycosylated RNA constructs. Thus, we generated glycosylated forms of Y5 RNA mimics, a short non-coding RNA. The simple glycans lactose and sialyllactose were attached to the RNA backbone using azide-alkyne cycloadditions. Using nuclease digestion followed by LC-MS, we confirmed the presence of the glycosylated nucleosides, and characterized the chemical linkage. Next, we probed if glycosylation would affect the cellular response to Y5 RNA. We treated human foreskin fibroblasts in culture with the generated compounds. Key transcripts in the innate immune response were quantified by RT-qPCR. We found that under our experimental conditions, exposure of cells to the Y5 RNA did not trigger an interferon response, and glycosylation of this RNA did not have an impact. Thus, we have identified a successful approach to chemically characterize synthetic glyco-RNAs, which will be critical for further studies to elucidate how the presence of complex glycans on RNA affects the cellular response.

Engineering Logic DNA Nanoprobes on Live Cell Membranes for Simultaneously Monitoring Extracellular pH and Precise Drug Delivery

It remains a challenge to use a single probe to simultaneously detect extracellular pH fluctuations and specifically recognize cancer cells for precise drug delivery. Here, we engineered a tetrahedral framework nucleic acid-based logic nanoprobe (isgc8-tFNA) on live cell membranes for simultaneously monitoring extracellular pH and targeted drug delivery. Isgc8-tFNA was anchored stably on the cell surface through three cholesterol molecules inserting into the bilayer of the cell membrane. Once responding to the acidic tumor microenvironment, isgc8-tFNA formed an i-motif structure, leading to turn-on FRET signals for monitoring changes of extracellular pH. The nanoprobe exhibited a narrow pH-response window and excellent reversibility. Moreover, the nanoprobe could execute logic identification on the cell surface for precise drug delivery. Only if both in the acidic microenvironment and aptamer-targeting marker are present on the cell surface, the sgc8-ASO-chimera strand, carrying an antisense oligonucleotide drug, was released from the nanoprobe and entered into targeted cancer cells for gene silence. Additionally, the in situ drug release facilitated the uptake of drugs mediated by the interaction between sgc8 aptamer and membrane proteins, resulting in enhanced inhibition of cancer cell migration and proliferation. This logic nanoprobe will provide inspiration for designing smart devices for diagnosis of pH-related diseases and targeted drug delivery.

Bispecific antibody shuttles targeting CD98hc mediate efficient and long-lived brain delivery of IgGs

The inability of antibodies to penetrate the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a key limitation to their use in diverse applications. One promising strategy is to deliver IgGs using a bispecific BBB shuttle, which involves fusing an IgG to a second affinity ligand that engages a cerebrovascular endothelial target and facilitates transport across the BBB. Nearly all prior efforts have focused on shuttles that target transferrin receptor (TfR-1) despite inherent delivery and safety challenges. Here, we report bispecific antibody shuttles that engage CD98hc, the heavy chain of the large neutral amino acid transporter (LAT1), and efficiently transport IgGs into the brain. Notably, CD98hc shuttles lead to much longer-lived brain retention of IgGs than TfR-1 shuttles while enabling more specific targeting due to limited CD98hc engagement in the brain parenchyma, which we demonstrate for IgGs that either agonize a neuronal receptor (TrkB) or target other endogenous cell-surface proteins on neurons and astrocytes.

Chemically Modified Platforms for Better RNA Therapeutics

RNA-based therapies have catalyzed a revolutionary transformation in the biomedical landscape, offering unprecedented potential in disease prevention and treatment. However, despite their remarkable achievements, these therapies encounter substantial challenges including low stability, susceptibility to degradation by nucleases, and a prominent negative charge, thereby hindering further development. Chemically modified platforms have emerged as a strategic innovation, focusing on precise alterations either on the RNA moieties or their associated delivery vectors. This comprehensive review delves into these platforms, underscoring their significance in augmenting the performance and translational prospects of RNA-based therapeutics. It encompasses an in-depth analysis of various chemically modified delivery platforms that have been instrumental in propelling RNA therapeutics toward clinical utility. Moreover, the review scrutinizes the rationale behind diverse chemical modification techniques aiming at optimizing the therapeutic efficacy of RNA molecules, thereby facilitating robust disease management. Recent empirical studies corroborating the efficacy enhancement of RNA therapeutics through chemical modifications are highlighted. Conclusively, we offer profound insights into the transformative impact of chemical modifications on RNA drugs and delineates prospective trajectories for their future development and clinical integration.

High-throughput cell optoporation system based on Au nanoparticle layers mediated by resonant irradiation for precise and controllable gene delivery

The development of approaches based on genetically modified cells is accompanied by a constant intensive search for new effective and safe delivery systems and the study of existing ones. Recently, we developed a new plasmonic nanoparticle layers-mediated optoporation system that can be proposed for precisely controlled, high-performance laser transfection compatible with broad types of cells and delivered objects of interest. The main goal of the present study is to demonstrate the broad possibilities and advantages of our system for optoporation of several mammalian cells, classified as "easy-to-transfect" cells, namely HeLa and CHO lines, and "hard-to-transfect" cells, namely A431 and RAW 264.7 cells. We show the efficient delivery of various sized cargo molecules: from small molecular dyes propidium iodide (PI) with molecular mass 700 Da, control plasmids (3-10 kb) to fluorophore-labeled dextranes with masses ranging from 10 kDa up to 100 kDa. The performance of optoporation was investigated for two types of laser sources, 800-nm continuous-wave laser, and 1064-nm ns pulsed laser. We provided a comparative study between our system and commercial agent Lipofectamine for transient transfection and stable transfection of HeLa cells with plasmids encoding fluorescent proteins. The quantitative data analysis using flow cytometry, Alamar blue viability assay, and direct fluorescence microscopy revealed higher optoporation efficacy for hard-to-transfect A431 cells and Raw 264.7 cells than lipofection efficacy. Finally, we demonstrated the optoporation performance at the single-cell level by successful delivering PI to the individual CHO cells with revealed high viability for at least 72 h post-irradiation.

Nebulised delivery of RNA formulations to the lungs: From aerosol to cytosol

In the past decade RNA-based therapies such as small interfering RNA (siRNA) and messenger RNA (mRNA) have emerged as new and ground-breaking therapeutic agents for the treatment and prevention of many conditions from viral infection to cancer. Most clinically approved RNA therapies are parenterally administered which impacts patient compliance and adds to healthcare costs. Pulmonary administration via inhalation is a non-invasive means to deliver RNA and offers an attractive alternative to injection. Nebulisation is a particularly appealing method due to the capacity to deliver large RNA doses during tidal breathing. In this review, we discuss the unique physiological barriers presented by the lung to efficient nebulised RNA delivery and approaches adopted to circumvent this problem. Additionally, the different types of nebulisers are evaluated from the perspective of their suitability for RNA delivery. Furthermore, we discuss recent preclinical studies involving nebulisation of RNA and analysis in in vitro and in vivo settings. Several studies have also demonstrated the importance of an effective delivery vector in RNA nebulisation therefore we assess the variety of lipid, polymeric and hybrid-based delivery systems utilised to date. We also consider the outlook for nebulised RNA medicinal products and the hurdles which must be overcome for successful clinical translation. In summary, nebulised RNA delivery has demonstrated promising potential for the treatment of several lung-related conditions such as asthma, COPD and cystic fibrosis, to which the mode of delivery is of crucial importance for clinical success.

Selection of GalNAc-Conjugated siKeap1 as Disease-Specific Delivery System for Chemotherapy-Induced Liver Injury and Chronic Liver Disease

Chemotherapy-induced liver injury (CILI) is a pressing concern in cancer patients. One promising approach involves activating nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) to mitigate CILI. However, selectively activating liver Nrf2 without compromising chemotherapy's efficacy has remained elusive. Herein, two RNAi delivery strategies were explored: lipid nanoparticle (LNP) and N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) delivery systems loaded with siRNA designed to silence Kelch-like-ECH associated protein 1 (Keap1) by aiming for liver-specific Nrf2 activation. Remarkably, siKeap1-LNP exhibited unintended tumor targeting alongside liver effects, thereby potentially promoting tumor progression. Conversely, siKeap1-GalNAc did not compromise chemotherapy efficacy and outperformed the conventional Nrf2 activator, bardoxolone, in mitigating CILI. This study proposes siKeap1-GalNAc as a promising therapeutic avenue for liver injury. Importantly, our study bridges a crucial gap concerning the delivery system for liver targeting but not tumor targeting and underscores the importance of selecting nucleic acid delivery systems tailored to specific diseases, not just to specific organs.

Hydroxyl-rich branched polycations for nucleic acid delivery

Recently, nucleic acid delivery has become an amazing route for the treatment of various malignant diseases, and polycationic vectors are attracting more and more attention among gene vectors. However, conventional polycationic vectors still face many obstacles in nucleic acid delivery, such as significant cytotoxicity, high protein absorption behavior, and unsatisfactory blood compatibility caused by a high positive charge density. To solve these problems, the fabrication of hydroxyl-rich branched polycationic vectors has been proposed. For the synthesis of hydroxyl-rich branched polycations, a one-pot method is considered as the preferred method due to its simple preparation process. In this review, typical one-pot methods for fabricating hydroxyl-rich polycations are presented. In particular, amine-epoxide ring-opening polymerization as a novel approach is mainly introduced. In addition, various therapeutic scenarios of hydroxyl-rich branched polycations via one-pot fabrication are also generalized. We believe that this review will motivate the optimized design of hydroxyl-rich branched polycations for potential nucleic acid delivery and their bio-applications.

RNA nanostructures for targeted drug delivery and imaging

The RNA molecule plays a pivotal role in many biological processes by relaying genetic information, regulating gene expression, and serving as molecular machines and catalyzers. This inherent versatility of RNA has fueled significant advancements in the field of RNA nanotechnology, driving the engineering of complex nanoscale architectures toward biomedical applications, including targeted drug delivery and bioimaging. RNA polymers, serving as building blocks, offer programmability and predictability of Watson-Crick base pairing, as well as non-canonical base pairing, for the construction of nanostructures with high precision and stoichiometry. Leveraging the ease of chemical modifications to protect the RNA from degradation, researchers have developed highly functional and biocompatible RNA architectures and integrated them into preclinical studies for the delivery of payloads and imaging agents. This review offers an educational introduction to the use of RNA as a biopolymer in the design of multifunctional nanostructures applied to targeted delivery in vivo, summarizing physical and biological barriers along with strategies to overcome them. Furthermore, we highlight the most recent progress in the development of both small and larger RNA nanostructures, with a particular focus on imaging reagents and targeted cancer therapeutics in pre-clinical models and provide insights into the prospects of this rapidly evolving field.

Zwitterionic materials for nucleic acid delivery and therapeutic applications

Nucleic acid therapeutics have demonstrated substantial potential in combating various diseases. However, challenges persist, particularly in the delivery of multifunctional nucleic acids. To address this issue, numerous gene delivery vectors have been developed to fully unlock the potential of gene therapy. The advancement of innovative materials with exceptional delivery properties is critical to propel the clinical translation of nucleic acid drugs. Cationic vector materials have received extensive attention, while zwitterionic materials remain relatively underappreciated in delivery. In this review, we outline a diverse range of zwitterionic material nucleic acid carriers, predominantly encompassing zwitterionic lipids, polymers and peptides. Their respective chemical structures, synthesis approaches, properties, advantages, and therapeutic applications are summarized and discussed. Furthermore, we highlight the challenges and future opportunities associated with the development of zwitterionic vector materials. This review will aid to understand the zwitterionic materials in aiding gene delivery, contributing to the continual progress of nucleic acid therapeutics.

Advanced Formulation Approaches for Emerging Therapeutic Technologies

In addition to proteins, discussed in the Chapter "Advances in Vaccine Adjuvants: Nanomaterials and Small Molecules", there are a wide range of alternatives to small molecule active ingredients. Cells, extracellular vesicles, and nucleic acids in particular have attracted increasing research attention in recent years. There are now a number of products on the market based on these emerging technologies, the most famous of which are the mRNA-based vaccines against SARS-COV-2. These advanced therapeutic moieties are challenging to formulate however, and there remain significant challenges for their more widespread use. In this chapter, we consider the potential and bottlenecks for developing further medical products based on these systems. Cells, extracellular vesicles, and nucleic acids will be discussed in terms of their mechanism of action, the key requirements for translation, and how advanced formulation approaches can aid their future development. These points will be presented with selected examples from the literature, and with a focus on the formulations which have made the transition to clinical trials and clinical products.

In situ production and secretion of proteins endow therapeutic benefit against psoriasiform dermatitis and melanoma

Genetic medicines have the potential to treat various diseases; however, certain ailments including inflammatory diseases and cancer would benefit from control over extracellular localization of therapeutic proteins. A critical gap therefore remains the need to develop and incorporate methodologies that allow for posttranslational control over expression dynamics, localization, and stability of nucleic acid-generated protein therapeutics. To address this, we explored how the body's endogenous machinery controls protein localization through signal peptides (SPs), including how these motifs could be incorporated modularly into therapeutics. SPs serve as a virtual zip code for mRNA transcripts that direct the cell where to send completed proteins within the cell and the body. Utilizing this signaling biology, we incorporated secretory SP sequences upstream of mRNA transcripts coding for reporter, natural, and therapeutic proteins to induce secretion of the proteins into systemic circulation. SP sequences generated secretion of various engineered proteins into the bloodstream following intravenous, intramuscular, and subcutaneous SP mRNA delivery by lipid, polymer, and ionizable phospholipid delivery carriers. SP-engineered etanercept/TNF-α inhibitor proteins demonstrated therapeutic efficacy in an imiquimod-induced psoriasis model by reducing hyperkeratosis and inflammation. An SP-engineered anti-PD-L1 construct mediated mRNA encoded proteins with longer serum half-lives that reduced tumor burden and extended survival in MC38 and B16F10 cancer models. The modular nature of SP platform should enable intracellular and extracellular localization control of various functional proteins for diverse therapeutic applications.

SNHG17 alters anaerobic glycolysis by resetting phosphorylation modification of PGK1 to foster pro-tumor macrophage formation in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

Within the tumor immune microenvironment (TME), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are crucial in modulating polarization states to influence cancer development through metabolic reprogramming. While long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been shown to play a pivotal role in the progression of various cancers, the underlying mechanisms by which lncRNAs alter M2 polarization through macrophage metabolism remodeling remain unelucidated.

METHODS

RNA sequencing was used to screen for differentially expressed lncRNAs in TAMs and normal tissue-resident macrophages (NTRMs) isolated from pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) tissues, whilst RT-qPCR and FISH were employed to detect the expression level of SNHG17. Moreover, a series of in vivo and in vitro experiments were conducted to assess the functions of SNHG17 from TAMs in the polarization and glycolysis of M2-like macrophages and in the proliferation and metastasis of pancreatic cancer cells (PCs). Furthermore, Western blotting, RNA pull-down, mass spectrometry, RIP, and dual-luciferase assays were utilized to explore the underlying mechanism through which SNHG17 induces pro-tumor macrophage formation.

RESULTS

SNHG17 was substantially enriched in TAMs and was positively correlated with a worse prognosis in PDAC. Meanwhile, functional assays determined that SNHG17 promoted the malignant progression of PCs by enhancing M2 macrophage polarization and anaerobic glycolysis. Mechanistically, SNHG17 could sponge miR-628-5p to release PGK1 mRNA and concurrently interact with the PGK1 protein, activating the pro-tumorigenic function of PGK1 by enhancing phosphorylation at the T168A site of PGK1 through ERK1/2 recruitment. Lastly, SNHG17 knockdown could reverse the polarization status of macrophages in PDAC.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study illustrated the essential role of SNHG17 and its molecular mechanism in TAMs derived from PDAC, indicating that SNHG17 might be a viable target for PDAC immunotherapy.

Cellular Penetration and Intracellular Dynamics of Perfluorocarbon-Conjugated DNA/RNA as a Potential Means of Conditional Nucleic Acid Delivery

Nucleic acid-based therapeutics represent a novel approach for controlling gene expression. However, a practical delivery system is required that overcomes the poor cellular permeability and intercellular instability of nucleic acids. Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are highly stable structures that can readily traverse the lipid membrane of cells. Thus, PFC-DNA/RNA conjugates have properties that offer a potential means of delivering nucleic acid therapeutics, although the cellular dynamics of the conjugates remain unknown. Here, we performed systematic analysis of the cellular permeability of sequence-controlled PFC-DNA conjugates (N[PFC]n-DNA, n = 1,2,3,4,5) that can be synthesized by conventional phosphoramidite chemistry. We showed that DNA conjugates with two or more PFC-containing units (N[PFC]n≥2-DNA) penetrated HeLa cells without causing cellular damage. Imaging analysis along with quantitative flow cytometry analysis revealed that N[PFC]2-DNA rapidly passes through the cell membrane and is evenly distributed within the cytoplasm. Moreover, N[PFC]2-modified cyclin B1-targeting siRNA promoted gene knockdown efficacy of 30% compared with naked siRNA. A similar cell penetration without associated toxicity was consistent among the seven different human cell lines tested. These unique cellular environmental properties make N[PFC]2-DNA/RNA a potential nucleic acid delivery platform that can meet a wide range of applications.

Methods of miRNA delivery and possibilities of their application in neuro-oncology

In the current phase of medical progress, practical neuro-oncology faces critical challenges. These include the quest for and development of innovative methodological approaches, as well as the enhancement of conventional therapies to boost their efficacy in treating brain tumors, especially the malignant varieties. Recent strides in molecular and cellular biology, molecular genetics, and immunology have charted the primary research pathways in the development of new anti-cancer medications, with a particular focus on microRNA (miRNA)-based therapy. MiRNAs possess the ability to function as suppressors of tumor growth while also having the potential to act as oncogenes. MiRNAs wield control over numerous processes within the human body, encompassing tumor growth, proliferation, invasion, metastasis, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and immune responses. A significant impediment to enhancing the efficacy of brain tumor treatment lies in the unresolved challenge of traversing the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood-tumor barrier (BTB) to deliver therapeutic agents directly to the tumor tissue. Presently, there is a worldwide effort to conduct intricate research and design endeavors aimed at creating miRNA-based dosage forms and delivery systems that can effectively target various structures within the central nervous system (CNS). MiRNA-based therapy stands out as one of the most promising domains in neuro-oncology. Hence, the development of efficient and safe methods for delivering miRNA agents to the specific target cells within brain tumors is of paramount importance. In this study, we will delve into recent findings regarding various methods for delivering miRNA agents to brain tumor cells. We will explore the advantages and disadvantages of different delivery systems and consider some clinical aspects of miRNA-based therapy for brain tumors.

Polypeptide-Based Systems: From Synthesis to Application in Drug Delivery

Synthetic polypeptides are biocompatible and biodegradable macromolecules whose composition and architecture can vary over a wide range. Their unique ability to form secondary structures, as well as different pathways of modification and biofunctionalization due to the diversity of amino acids, provide variation in the physicochemical and biological properties of polypeptide-containing materials. In this review article, we summarize the advances in the synthesis of polypeptides and their copolymers and the application of these systems for drug delivery in the form of (nano)particles or hydrogels. The issues, such as the diversity of polypeptide-containing (nano)particle types, the methods for their preparation and drug loading, as well as the influence of physicochemical characteristics on stability, degradability, cellular uptake, cytotoxicity, hemolysis, and immunogenicity of polypeptide-containing nanoparticles and their drug formulations, are comprehensively discussed. Finally, recent advances in the development of certain drug nanoformulations for peptides, proteins, gene delivery, cancer therapy, and antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory systems are summarized.