The psychological impact of peer victimization: Exploring social-cognitive mediators of depression

Peer victimization in early adolescence and maladjustment in adulthood

Studies report different effect sizes for associations between peer victimization and later maladjustment. A possible origin of this heterogeneity is the length of the interval between victimization and maladjustment assessments. Effect sizes might also vary as a function of reporter. Longitudinal data from TRAILS, a study of adolescents followed from age 11 to 29 (baseline n = 2229) were used to test whether peer victimization assessed from adolescents themselves, their parents, teachers, and peers predicted internalizing symptoms, thought problems, and somatic complaints at six follow-ups with a temporal distance of up to 19 years. Neither self- nor peer-reported victimization predicted later maladjustment. In contrast, parent-reported victimization stably predicted adult maladjustment. Teacher-reported victimization also predicted maladjustment but associations were weaker and largely non-significant when parent reports were accounted for simultaneously. Parent-reported peer victimization has traditionally played a minor role in bullying research as parents are usually not present when victimization occurs. The results of this study however suggest that parents should be listened to when talking about their offspring being victimized.

School bullying and self-efficacy in adolescence: A meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Given that literature has examined the relation between school bullying and self-efficacy, findings have been mixed. This meta-analysis aimed to clarify whether school bullying is associated with adolescents' self-efficacy, a key component of social information processing essential for the evaluation of potential behavioral responses. We further examined moderators associated with heterogeneity in the above relation, including participant roles, types of school bullying, types of self-efficacy, and demographic factors (e.g., age, gender, and cultural background).

METHOD

This study followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses Statement for searching, identifying, and screening eligible articles. A total of 53 articles (N = 71,661; Mage  = 12.69 years) were included (50 in English and 3 in Chinese). Articles were coded by two graduate-level coders independently with a high inter-rater reliability (97.12%).

RESULTS

The results showed that (1) school bullying was negatively associated with self-efficacy (r = -.07, p < .001) among adolescents, and (2) the above relation varied by participant role (e.g., bullies, victims, bully-victims, and defenders), types of school bullying (e.g., traditional bullying, cyberbullying, and both), and types of self-efficacy (e.g., general and domain-specific self-efficacy).

FINDINGS

The findings highlight that school bullying is associated with disruptive cognitive processing in adolescence, low self-efficacy in particular, and the heterogeneity should be considered to fully understand the association between school bullying and self-efficacy among adolescents.

The effect of cyberbullying victimization and traditional bullying victimization on suicidal ideation among Chinese female college students: The role of rumination and insomnia

BACKGROUND

The issue of college student suicide has emerged as a significant global public health concern. To date, there has been a lack of extensive research on the effects of distinct forms of bullying victimization (traditional bullying victimization and cyberbullying victimization) on suicidal ideation, as well as the differences between them. The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between two forms of bullying victimization and suicidal ideation among female college students, while also considering the potential mediating effects of rumination and insomnia.

METHODS

A total of 2106 female college students from Southern China participated in this study. The participants had a mean age of 19.83 years (SD = 1.04 years). Participants completed the MINI-C questionnaire, School Bullying Behavior Questionnaire, Cyberbullying Inventory (CBI), Ruminative Responses Scale (RRS), and Insomnia Severity Index (ISI). The mediation models were conducted using Model 4 and Model 6 of the Process macro program in SPSS.

RESULTS

The results showed that (1) the mediating effect of rumination in the relationship between different forms of bullying victimization and suicidal ideation was significant; (2) The mediating effect of insomnia in the relationship between traditional bullying victimization and suicidal ideation was not significant; the mediating effect between cyberbullying victimization and suicidal ideation was significant. (3) The chain mediating effect of rumination and insomnia in the relationship between different forms of bullying victimization and suicidal ideation were both significant.

CONCLUSION

This study endeavor represents the first attempt to investigate the relationship between two forms of bullying victimization and suicidal ideation.

The role of self-efficacy and parental communication in the association between cyber victimization and depression among adolescents and young adults: a structural equation model

BACKGROUND

With the rapid advancement and revolutionization of information and communication technologies, adolescents and young adults use smartphones, the internet, and social networking services more frequently, as a result, the problem of cyber-bullying sharply increases, and eventually it causes psychological issues and negative thoughts in the victims. This study aimed to examine the role of self-efficacy and parental communication in the relationship between cyber victimization and depression among adolescents and young adults in India.

METHODS

Secondary data analysis was performed on a cross-sectional dataset obtained from the Understanding the Lives of Adolescents and Young Adults (UDAYA) wave 2 survey. The sample included 16,292 adolescent and young adult boys and girls aged 12-23 years. Karl Pearson Correlation coefficient analysis was done to examine the correlation between outcome variable (depressive symptoms), mediator variables (self-efficacy and parental communication) and key explanatory variable (cyber victimization). Further, structural equation modeling technique was applied to examine the hypothesized pathways.

RESULTS

Adolescents and young adults being victims of cyber-bullying [β = 0.1357, p < 0.001] and those witnessed inter-parental violence were positively [β = 0.0026, p < 0.001] correlated with depressive symptoms. Self-efficacy and parental communication were negatively related to depressive symptoms among adolescents and young adults. There was a significant positive relationship between cyber victimization [β = 0.258, p < 0.001] and depressive symptoms. Cyber victimization was positively related to self-efficacy [β = 0.043, p < 0.001] among adolescents and young adults. Self-efficacy [β= -0.150, p < 0.001] and parental communication [β=-0.261, p < 0.001] reduced depressive symptoms among the participants.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that adolescents and young adults who are victims of cyber-bully may have depressive symptoms and their mental health can be improved through the enhancement of self-efficacy and increased parental communication. Improved peer attitudes and familial support for empowering cyber victims should be taken into account while framing programs and interventions.

Peer learning can modify the reciprocal relationship between peer support and victimization in middle school

INTRODUCTION

This research investigated how peer victimization and support are reciprocally related and how Cooperative Learning (CL) can reverse the progressive cascade that, unchecked, can culminate in youth mental health problems.

METHODS

The sample (N = 1890; 53% male) was derived from a randomized trial of CL in 15 middle schools in the United States. Students were recruited in the 7th grade. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to fit our cross-lag difference score model across four waves of data.

RESULTS

The results indicated a reciprocal relationship between peer support and victimization across time, suggesting the potential for negative experiences with peers to become amplified over time in a "vicious cycle," negatively impacting mental health. Students in intervention schools reported significantly higher levels of peer support and lower levels of victimization, suggesting that CL can intervene in this cycle, with salutary effects on mental health; CL also demonstrated direct effects on mental health.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study indicates that low peer support can be both a precursor to and an outcome of victimization, serving to maintain a vicious cycle that compounds negative effects on student mental health. Further, results demonstrate how CL can reverse this cycle. We conclude that CL can be of particular importance to the prevention field as a universal mental health program that does not require the associated stigma of identifying youth at elevated risk for referral to treatment programs.

Rumination Mediates the Longitudinal Associations Between Elementary-School Victimization and Adolescents' Internalizing Problems

Identifying potential mechanisms responsible for victimized children's maladjustment over time is a crucial step in our efforts to alleviate negative consequences of victimization. In this study, we examined whether rumination would serve as a potential mediator of the prospective links between victimization in late childhood and symptoms of depression and anxiety in adolescence. The sample included 552 Finnish students (238 boys; M_age in third grade = 9.85 years, SD = .71) who participated in a longitudinal study. Participants filled out several measures where they were asked about the frequency of different forms of victimization (in third and fourth grade), how much they ruminated about their past victimization and whether it elicited sadness and anger (in seventh grade), and the degree to which they experienced depressive and anxiety symptoms (in third and seventh grade). We found that greater frequency of victimization in elementary school led to increases in symptoms of depression and anxiety through rumination. These findings suggest that at least some victimization-related negative consequences can be minimized if we are able to help young people to stop reliving their painful memories.

A Longitudinal Process Model Evaluating the Effects of Cooperative Learning on Victimization, Stress, Mental Health, and Academic Engagement in Middle School

Mental health is a significant concern among young people, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. Notably, mental health problems can significantly reduce student performance in school, including both engagement and achievement. Both mental health problems and reduced student performance often arise due to peer victimization, which can include teasing, racial- or gender-based discrimination, and/or physical assault. Stress has been proposed as one mechanism through which victimization influences mental health, and stress can also interfere with academic performance at school, including engagement and achievement. To date, however, no research has evaluated longitudinal associations between victimization and stress, and how these longitudinal patterns may impact adolescent behavior and mental health. In this study, we used data from a 2-year cluster randomized trial of cooperative learning to evaluate an etiological process model that includes (1) longitudinal reciprocal effects between victimization and stress, and (2) the effects of both victimization and stress on student mental health and academic engagement. We hypothesized that victimization and stress would have significant reciprocal effects, and that both would predict greater mental health problems and lower academic engagement. We further hypothesized that cooperative learning would have significant effects on all constructs. We found partial support for this model, whereby stress predicted greater victimization, but victimization did not predict increased stress. While both factors were linked to student outcomes, stress was a more powerful predictor. We also found significant salutary effects of cooperative learning on all constructs. The implications of these results for student behavioral and mental health are discussed.

Reciprocated Friendship as a Mediator of the Effects of Cooperative Learning on Peer Victimization in Middle School

Peer victimization represents a pervasive problem, particularly for students in middle school. Although curriculum-based prevention programs have generated small to moderate effects on victimization, these effects tend to weaken beginning with the transition to middle school. In this study, we evaluated cooperative learning (CL) as a mechanism to prevent victimization, and evaluated reciprocated friendships as a mediator of these effects. Using four waves of data from a cluster randomized trial of CL (7 intervention and 8 control middle schools; N=1,890 students, 47.1% female, 75.2% White), we found that CL significantly reduced victimization after two years, and these effects were mediated by growth in reciprocated friendship in the first year. We conclude that CL can reduce victimization by providing a means for students to engage in extended social interactions with a wider range of peers and thus creating opportunities for students to forge stronger (i.e., reciprocated) friendships.

Study of the Psychometric Properties of the Social Self-Efficacy Scale with Spanish Adolescents by Gender, Age and Family Socioeconomic Level

Social self-efficacy has been shown to be a key resource for adolescents' social experiences with peers and a predictor of prosocial behaviour among adolescents. However, differences by gender, age and socioeconomic level have previously been found in social self-efficacy. The objective of this study is to assess the psychometric properties of the subscale of social self-efficacy from the Self-Efficacy Questionnaire for Children (SEQ-C) developed by Muris (2001) in a representative sample of Spanish adolescents while considering gender, age and socioeconomic level differences. In general, the results showed good psychometric properties and a one-dimensional structure with high internal consistency, adequate explained variance and evidence of external validity for the subscale. Furthermore, the invariance analysis demonstrated that the social self-efficacy subscale shows no bias when used with populations of adolescents who differ by gender, age and socioeconomic level. The results indicate that the Spanish version of the social self-efficacy subscale of the SEQ-C is an adequate measurement instrument for assessing adolescents' perception of their own social skills.

The Longitudinal Relationship Between Peer Relations and Empathy and their Joint Contribution to Reducing Bullying in Middle School: Findings from a Randomized Trial of Cooperative Learning

The positive peer relations arising from cooperative learning can contribute to the development of affective empathy, which in turn can reduce bullying (Van Ryzin & Roseth, 2019). However, from a theoretical perspective, the direction of effects between peer relations and empathy could be in the opposite direction, or bi-directional. In the current paper, we employed a process-oriented approach (i.e., cross-lag difference score modeling; McArdle, 2009) to investigate the longitudinal relationship between positive peer relations and affective empathy, as well as their joint effect on bullying. Using four waves of data from a cluster randomized trial including 15 middle schools (7 intervention and 8 control schools; N=1,890 students, 47.1% female, 75.2% White), we found a bi-directional or reciprocal relationship between peer relations and affective empathy, and change in both constructs predicted lower levels of bullying. Cooperative learning predicted positive change in peer relations and affective empathy, as well as lower levels of bullying. These results suggest that the structured social interactions that occur during cooperative learning can enhance student interpersonal relations, and simultaneously the experiential skill building of cooperative learning can contribute to a more profound understanding of the emotional states of others. These effects amplify one another and, in turn, significantly reduce bullying in middle school. Given that cooperative learning has already been demonstrated to enhance academic motivation and achievement (Roseth et al., 2008), we argue that cooperative learning offers an effective, attractive alternative to traditional curriculum-based bullying prevention programs (National Library of Medicine [NLM], NCT03119415).

Passive and active suicidal ideation among left-behind children in rural China: An evaluation of intrapersonal and interpersonal vulnerability and resilience

OBJECTIVE

Although theoretical conceptualizations of suicide hold that passive and active suicidal ideation are etiologically distinct, existing research observing this distinction is modest, with most prior studies focusing exclusively on active ideation. Understanding processes associated with passive ideation is clinically important insofar as passive ideation may precede active ideation, and thus serve as an earlier intervention target prior to potential onset of suicidal behavior. We aimed to evaluate intrapersonal and interpersonal vulnerability and resilience factors for passive ideation and differentiating passive from active ideation.

METHOD

Left-behind adolescents in rural China (n = 371) were assessed for passive and active ideation, depressive symptoms, rumination, grit, peer support, and peer victimization.

RESULTS

Overall, 15.9% of the sample endorsed passive ideation without active ideation, and 17.8% endorsed active ideation. In multivariate analyses, rumination and grit differentiated left-behind children with passive ideation from those with no ideation. Depressive symptom severity predicted active ideation among adolescents with passive ideation.

CONCLUSIONS

The current findings suggest that rumination and grit may characterize passive ideation. Although passive and active ideation may differ modestly in vulnerability and resilience factors, depressive symptoms may be important to monitor among those with passive ideation and have not yet experience active ideation.

Neural signatures of bullying experience and social rejection in teenagers

Relational bullying in schools is one of the most frequent forms of violence and can have severe negative health impact, e.g. depression. Social exclusion is the most prominent form of relational bullying that can be operationalized experimentally. The present study used MR-based perfusion imaging (pCASL) to investigate the neural signatures of social exclusion and its relationship with individually different extent of previous bullying experience. Twenty-four teenagers reporting bullying experience at different extent were scanned during a virtual ball-tossing (Cyberball game). Our findings showed that social exclusion (relative to social inclusion) activated frontal brain areas: sub- and perigenual anterior cingulate cortex (sg/pgACC), left inferior frontal cortex (IFG), and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Positive relationship between exclusion-specific signal increase and individually different extents of prior bullying experience was for the first time observed in left IFG and sgACC. This suggests that more frequent prior experience has conditioned greater mentalizing and/or rumination, in order to cope with the situation. While this interpretation remains speculative, the present data show that the experience of being bullied partly sensitizes the neural substrate relevant for the processing of social exclusion.

The association of polyvictimization with violent ideations in late adolescence and early adulthood: A longitudinal study

Violent ideations are increasingly recognized as an important psychological predictor for aggressive and violent behavior. However, little is known about the processes that contribute to violent ideations. This paper examines the extent to which polyvictimization triggers violent ideations in late adolescence and early adulthood, while also adjusting for dispositional and situational factors as well as prior violent ideations. Data came from three waves of the Zurich Project on the Social Development from Childhood into Adulthood (z-proso; n = 1465). Full-information maximum likelihood Tobit models were fitted to regress violent ideations experienced at ages 17 and 20 on multiple victimization experiences in the preceding 12 months while controlling for antecedent developmental risk factors and prior violent ideations. The results showed that violent ideations in late adolescence and early adulthood are influenced by violent thoughts, aggressive behavior, violent media consumption, moral neutralization of violence, and internalizing symptoms measured 2 years earlier. Experiences of polyvictimization significantly contributed to an increase in violent ideations both during late adolescence and in early adulthood. The exposure-response relationship between victimization and violent ideations did not significantly differ by sex. The findings are consistent with the notion that violent ideations are triggered by a retaliation-linked psychological mechanism that entails playing out other directed imaginary aggressive scenarios specifically in response to experiencing intentional harm-doing by others.

Naturalistic development of trait mindfulness: A longitudinal examination of victimization and supportive relationships in early adolescence

Scholars have only just begun to examine elements of young adolescents' social ecologies that explain naturalistic variation in trait mindfulness and its development over time. We argue that trait mindfulness develops as a function of chronically encountered ecologies that are likely to foster or thwart the repeated enactment of mindful states over time. Using data from 4,593 fourth and seventh grade students (50% female; MageG4 = 9.02; 71% English first language) from 32 public school districts in British Columbia (BC), Canada, we examined links from peer belonging, connectedness with adults at home, and peer victimization to mindfulness over time. Variable-centered analyses indicated that young adolescents with lower victimization in fourth grade reported higher mindfulness in seventh grade, and that cross-sectionally within seventh grade victimization, peer belonging, and connectedness with adults at home were each associated with mindfulness. Contrary to our hypothesis, connectedness with adults at home moderated the longitudinal association between victimization and mindfulness such that the negative association was stronger among young adolescents with high (vs. low) levels of connectedness with adults at home. Person-centered analysis of the fourth graders' data confirmed our variable-centered findings, yielding four latent classes of social ecology whose mindfulness levels in seventh grade largely tracked with their victimization levels (from highest to lowest mindfulness): (1) flourishing relationships, (2) unvictimized but weak relationships with adults, (3) moderately victimized but strong relationships, and (4) victimized but strong relationships. Overall, our findings contribute to a growing body of evidence indicating that trait mindfulness may develop as a function of ecologically normative experiences in young adolescents' everyday lives.

Longitudinal associations between justice sensitivity, nonsuicidal self-injury, substance use, and victimization by peers

Justice sensitivity (JS), the tendency to perceive and negatively respond to alleged injustice, has been associated with a range of internalizing and externalizing problems and peer victimization; however, it remains unclear if it has an association with self-victimization. Participants (N = 769) reported on their JS longitudinally at 9-19 (T1), 11-21 (T2), and 14-22 years of age (T3). They further reported on nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) and illegal substance use as indicators of self-victimization as well as victimization by peers at T2 and T3. A cross-lagged latent model revealed that victim JS at T1 was positively associated with NSSI, substance use, and peer victimization at T2, and victim JS at T2 was positively associated with substance use at T3. Higher observer JS at T2 predicted higher illegal substance use at T3 and higher illegal substance use at T2 predicted higher observer JS at T3. Finally, higher peer victimization at T2 predicted less perpetrator JS at T3 in the total group. Multigroup models further revealed sex-specific effects. Our findings highlight that being sensitive to injustice, particularly the tendency to feel unfairly treated or being taken advantage of, contributes to individuals' vulnerability to both engaging in behaviors reflecting self-victimization and being a target of peer victimization, which in turn have influences on JS.

Vicarious Victimization, Negative Emotions, and Maladaptive Coping: Investigating the Role of Violent Peers

According to general strain theory's (GST) vicarious strain hypothesis, individuals' behavior is influenced by witnessing or having knowledge of others' stressful experiences, especially those within their network. Drawing on Agnew's GST, the current study examines the relationship between peer victimization and violent offending, as well as the potential intervening factors in this relationship. The primary research questions are: (a) does vicarious strain occur through having friends who are victimized? And (b) what role does violent peers play in the coping process? Data for the analysis were obtained from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescents to Adult Health's friendship network data. Results from multivariate analysis show that victimization of ones' friend (or peer victimization) is associated with depression as well as personal involvement in violent offending. This relationship, however, is fully mediated by depression. Regarding deviant peers, a three-way interaction effect was observed, specifically peer victimization, involvement with peers, and associating violent peers was a significant predictor of violent offending. Findings from the current study highlight the importance of considering the role of deviant peers in the coping process. Results lend support to Agnew's GST. Implications for theory and research are discussed.

Effects of a Growth Mindset of Personality on Emerging Adults' Defender Self-Efficacy, Moral Disengagement, and Perceived Peer Defending

This study investigated the effects of a brief educational exercise aimed to promote a growth mindset of personality (the belief that personality traits are malleable) on outcomes linked to peer defending. Undergraduates (N = 60) were randomly assigned to complete a learning task designed to foster a growth mindset of personality or to a matching control task. They then read a vignette of a college student victimized by peers and completed paper-and-pencil measures of defender self-efficacy, moral disengagement, and perceived defender behavior, followed by a brief manipulation check. The experimental manipulation was successful, and participants who completed the growth mindset of personality intervention reported higher defender self-efficacy, lower moral disengagement, and higher perceived defending behavior. There was also a significant indirect effect of the experimental manipulation on perceived defending via self-efficacy, suggesting that a growth mindset of personality may influence peer defending through gains in defender self-efficacy. Implications are discussed for bullying prevention, with emphasis on programming for emerging adults at college.

Self-Efficacy and Depression in Boxers: A Mediation Model

BACKGROUND

Depression has become one of the most common problems faced by athletes. In many mental health problems, its production and development mechanisms and influencing factors have received full attention from researchers, whereas boxers' depression has received limited attention. This study explored the relationship between boxers' self-efficacy and depression, as well as the effect of self-control as a mediating factor.

METHODS

This study used the athlete self-efficacy scale (ASES), the self-control scale (SCS), and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies depression scale (CES-D). Using a large number of randomly selected samples, a total of N=231 boxers (age: M =20.28, SD = 2.60, ages around 18 to 32; the total number of years of exercise: M = 6.07 years, SD = 2.90, years around 1 to 15; 144 male) of Chinese national athletes participated the study.

RESULTS

Self-efficacy and self-control were negatively correlated with depression; self-efficacy was positively correlated with self-control. In addition, self-control played a partial mediation role between self-efficacy and depression among boxers.

CONCLUSION

Above all, an important way to improve and prevent the depression of Chinese boxers maybe enhance their level of self-efficacy and self-control.

Trajectories of Verbal and Physical Peer Victimization Among Children with Comorbid Oppositional Defiant Problems, Conduct Problems and Hyperactive-Attention Problems

The high levels of comorbidity between oppositional/conduct problems and hyperactivity/attention problems underscore the need for assessing how vulnerability for peer victimization is shaped by overlap among these behavior problems. Children (mean age 8.39, SD = 0.93) participating in a longitudinal study of the development of conduct problems (N = 744; 348 girls) in Quebec, Canada, were evaluated by their teachers regarding experiences of peer verbal and physical victimization every year for 6 years. Parent and teacher ratings of clinically significant oppositional/conduct problems, and hyperactivity/attention problems, as well as cormorbid opposition defiant/conduct problems and hyperactivity/attention problems were regressed onto trajectories of verbal and physical victimization. While behavior problems (both alone and together) were associated with higher levels of verbal and physical victimization, some variation was observed across rater and type of victimization. Ultimately, these findings suggest the importance of adapting programming for reducing victimization to children with oppositional and conduct problems.

The Role of Metacognitions and Thinking Styles in the Negative Outcomes of Adolescents' Peer Victimization

Psychological mechanisms that may explain the link between peer victimization and its adverse outcomes are still understudied. The current study aimed to apply the Self-Regulatory Executive Function (S-REF) model of psychopathology (Wells & Matthews, 1994, 1996) to help explain this link in a sample of adolescents. A total of 1,169 Italian adolescents (47.7% females; M_age = 15.79, SD = 1.07) completed self-report measures of peer victimization, metacognitions, thinking styles (worry and rumination), and adjustment indices (somatic symptoms, anxiety, depression). The hypothesized model based on the S-REF model was tested through path analysis. Results confirmed that peer victimization was positively associated with both positive and negative metacognitions that, in turn, were linked to worry and rumination, which were associated with higher psychological and somatic problems. The strongest indirect links were found between peer victimization and anxiety via negative metacognitions and worry, and between victimization and depression via negative metacognitions and rumination. Overall, the results support to the application of the S-REF model to peer victimization experiences during adolescence. The clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

A Step Toward a Better Understanding of the Relationship Between Victimization and Emotional Distress: Indirect Effect of Adult Attachment and Interaction With Household Dysfunction

A history of victimization has been linked to the latter development of emotional distress. However, not all victims develop emotional distress in response to victimization, emphasizing the need to identify mediators that can guide intervention, as well as moderators to more targeted preventive actions. Within a developmental psychology framework, we aimed to test two models: (a) the role of adult attachment as a mediator in the relationship between victimization and emotional distress, and (b) the role of household dysfunctions as moderators in the relationship between victimization and emotional distress, in psychiatric patients. Participants were 120 adult psychiatric patients, between ages 20 and 79 years (M = -47.22, SD = 13.102) that responded to questions assessing household dysfunction in the family of origin, victimization, and adult attachment. Results revealed that adult attachment was a significant mediator in the association between victimization and emotional distress. Parental mental disorder and total household adversity were significant moderators for that same association. These results provide important clues for intervention. The focus on promoting secure adult relationships may contribute not only to the psychosocial adjustment of psychiatric patients but also to a healthier family functioning. Reducing the household dysfunction may provide a protective environment for the development of children, promoting a positive psychosocial adjustment, also preventing the intergenerational transmission of violence, insecure attachment, and emotional distress.

Secondary school practitioners' beliefs about risk factors for school attendance problems: a qualitative study

School staff have an important role to play in identifying and assisting pupils who require additional support to regularly attend school, but their beliefs about risk factors might influence their decisions regarding intervention. This qualitative study investigated educational practitioners' beliefs about risk factors for attendance problems. Sixteen practitioners from three secondary schools were interviewed via focus groups. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. Practitioners identified risk factors related to the individual, their family, peers and school. Poor mental health was identified as a risk factor, but practitioners primarily focused on anxiety rather than other mental health problems like depression or behavioural disorders. The overall perception was that school factors were less important than individual, family and peer factors. Implications include a need for increased awareness of the role of school factors in attendance problems, focus on promoting positive peer and pupil-teacher relationships, and collaborative working between young people, families and schools.

Bidirectional Relationships Between Stress, Depressive Symptoms, and Cognitive Vulnerabilities in Adolescents

Introduction: Depression is a highly prevalent problem in adolescence, with great clinical and social relevance. Recent models of psychopathology in childhood and adolescence underscore that the relationships between stress, cognitive vulnerabilities, and depressive symptoms are bidirectional. In addition, according to cognitive therapy models, cognitive vulnerabilities are organized hierarchically, with deep schemas guiding more superficial cognitive processes such as rumination. The present study examines the longitudinal predictive relationships between two levels of cognitions (early maladaptive schemas and rumination), stressors, and depression.

Method: A sample of 584 Spanish adolescents (262 girls; mean age = 15.99, SD = 1.10) completed measures of depression, stressors, rumination, and three early maladaptive schema domains (disconnection and rejection, impaired autonomy and other-directedness) over 4 intervals of 4 months. Path analysis was used to test the hypotheses of the study.

Results: Disconnection and rejection domain systematically predicted an increase in depression, new stressors, and rumination over time. In addition, depressive symptoms predicted an increase of disconnection/rejection scores at all time points. Finally, from Time 2 on, stressors predicted an increase in all schema domains.

Discussion: The outcomes suggest the importance of the disconnection and rejection schema domain. These results are important to understand the mechanisms underlying stress and depression in adolescents.

Self-Continuity Moderates the Association Between Peer Victimization and Depressed Affect

Two longitudinal studies conducted with early adolescents (ages 10-13) examined the hypothesis that self-continuity, or the degree to which individuals feel that they remain the same person over time regardless of how their specific characteristics may change, would moderate the association between victimization and depressed affect. Both Study 1 (N = 141) and Study 2 (N = 100) provided evidence of the moderating role of self-continuity as a buffer on the effect of peer victimization. Study 2 confirmed that self-continuity had a moderating effect after controlling for academic performance, number of friends, self-esteem, self-concept clarity, hopelessness, and self-blame. Findings support self-continuity as being protective with regard to negative peer environments.

Cooperative Learning in Middle School: A Means to Improve Peer Relations and Reduce Victimization, Bullying, and Related Outcomes

Peer victimization is a highly stressful experience that impacts up to a third of all adolescents and can contribute to a variety of negative outcomes, including elevated anxiety, depression, drug use, and delinquency, as well as reduced self-esteem, school attendance, and academic achievement. Current prevention approaches (e.g., the Olweus program) have a mixed record in American schools. We propose a new approach to prevention that leverages theory and research surrounding the social aspects of bullying and victimization, particularly peer relations. Our approach attempts to (1) break down the process of homophily among bullies, and (2) provide a mechanism by which socially isolated students can develop new friendships. Our approach asks teachers to increase opportunities for positive peer interaction through carefully structured, group-based learning activities in school (i.e., cooperative learning). We hypothesized that these positive peer interactions would result in reductions in bullying, victimization, perceived stress, and emotional problems, as well as increases in peer relatedness, among more marginalized students. Using a cluster randomized trial with 15 rural middle schools in the Pacific Northwest (N = 1,460 7th grade students), we found that cooperative learning significantly reduced bullying, victimization, and perceived stress for marginalized students (i.e., moderated effects), and reduced emotional problems and enhanced relatedness for all students (i.e., main effects). Given that cooperative learning has already been shown to enhance student engagement and achievement in prior research, our results demonstrate that cooperative learning can be a permanent, sustainable component of teacher training and school culture.

Pilot evaluation of a targeted intervention for peer-victimized youth

OBJECTIVE

Due to the limited effectiveness of extant prevention and intervention strategies, the current study is an initial evaluation of a cognitive behavioral group intervention, originally designed to treat symptoms of depression and anxiety, for youth who experienced peer victimization.

METHODS

Twelve third- through fifth-grade youth participated in the intervention, and their data were compared with 12 youth who were a part of a naturalistic control group. Additionally, school-wide data are reported to provide overall school trends.

RESULTS

Whereas the intervention group participants exhibited decreases in relational victimization, depressive symptoms, and passive coping, the control group participants exhibited nonsignificant increases in relational victimization, depressive symptoms, and passive coping. School-wide data also indicated overall increases in relational victimization and depressive symptoms, but no changes in passive coping.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that cognitive behavioral group interventions may provide a promising avenue for addressing the mental health needs of victimized elementary school-age youth.

Anger rumination and unjust world beliefs moderate the association between cyberbullying victimization and psychiatric symptoms

Several studies have found a positive relationship between cyberbullying victimization and psychiatric symptoms such as depression or anxiety. However, relatively little research has investigated factors that might moderate this association. The present study aimed to examine the moderating role of anger rumination, unjust world beliefs and perceived social support in the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and psychiatric symptoms across different victim groups. A total of 1,500 participants (57.9% male, M_age = 28.9 years, SD = 8.7) were recruited using an online questionnaire. According to the results, 29.8% of participants reported being bullied online during the past year. Results also indicated that cyberbullying victims but not bully-victims with a tendency to ruminate on past anger episodes and strong unjust world beliefs are more likely to experience psychiatric symptoms. These findings point to the differences between victims and bully-victims in the mechanisms underlying the victimization-psychiatric symptoms association, and highlight the importance of emotion regulation and just world beliefs in preserving and enhancing psychological well-being in those individuals who had been bullied online.

Bully victimization, depression, and the role of protective factors among college LGBTQ students

This study surveyed 347 lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning college students from across the United States concerning their bully victimization, depressive symptoms, and sources of support. Participants responded to an online survey that asked them about their victimization experiences during the 3 months prior to the survey. The results indicate that four types of bully victimization (verbal, relational, cyber, and physical) occur during the college years, and that victimization relates positively to depressive symptomatology in sexual minority college students. The 4 forms of bullying did not relate to depression in the same manner for each of the 5 sexual minority subgroups. Peer support, but not family and campus support, provided a buffer against depression for lesbian, gay, and bisexual students. This study involved a sample exclusively comprising sexual minority college students, and the findings show the need for colleges to address bully victimization and its effects in this population.

"They Think that I Should Defend": Effects of Peer and Teacher Injunctive Norms on Defending Victimized Classmates in Early Adolescents

Norms have been suggested as important characteristics of the social-ecological context for defending victimized peers, but little is known about the contribution of student perceived injunctive norms (regarding the appropriateness of defending) imposed by peers and teachers. To investigate the role of these norms in defending, a sample of 751 early adolescents (51% female; M_age at Time 1:13 years) was assessed at two time points. Defending, as measured by peer- and self-ratings, decreased slightly over a six-month timespan. Three-level models (with time, students, and classrooms as the levels) indicated that both individual- and classroom-level perceived peer injunctive norms (but not teacher injunctive norms) had positive effects on defending over time regardless of the source of the information on defending (peers or self). These findings support programs that encourage defending through peer norms.

Bullying as a Stressor in Mid-Adolescent Girls and Boys-Associations with Perceived Stress, Recurrent Pain, and Salivary Cortisol

Bullying involves repeated exposure to negative actions while also invoking a power asymmetry between the involved parties. From a stress perspective, being bullied can be seen as a severe and chronic stressor, and an everyday social-evaluative threat, coupled with a shortage of effective social resources for dealing with this particular stressor. The aim of this study was to investigate whether exposure to bullying among mid-adolescent girls and boys is associated with subjective and objective stress-related outcomes in terms of perceived stress, recurrent pain, and salivary cortisol. The data came from the School Stress and Support Study (TriSSS) including students in grades 8-9 in two schools in Stockholm, Sweden, in 2010 (study sample n = 392; cortisol subsample n = 198). Bullying was self-reported and measured by multiple items. The statistical analyses included binary logistic and linear (OLS) regression. Being bullied was associated with greater perceived stress and an increased risk of recurrent pain, among both boys and girls. Also, bullied students had lower cortisol output (AUC_G) and lower cortisol awakening response (CAR_G) as compared to those who were not bullied. Gender-stratified analyses demonstrated that these associations were statistically significant for boys but not for girls. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that being bullied was related to both subjective and objective stress markers among mid-adolescent girls and boys, pointing to the necessity of continuously working against bullying.

Still lonely: Social adjustment of youth with and without social anxiety disorder following cognitive behavioral therapy

Social experiences are an integral part of normative development for youth and social functioning difficulties are related to poor outcomes. Youth with anxiety disorders, and particularly social anxiety disorder, experience difficulties across many aspects of social functioning that may place them at risk for maladjustment. The goal of this paper was to compare social experiences of youth across anxiety diagnoses and examine whether treatment is helpful in improving social functioning. Ninety-two children (age 7-12 years; 58% male; 87.0% White) with a primary diagnosis of generalized anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, and/or social anxiety disorder participated in cognitive behavioral therapy. At both pre- and post-treatment, children with social anxiety disorder self-reported greater loneliness than youth without social anxiety disorder, though levels of peer victimization and receipt of prosocial behavior were similar across groups. Parents reported greater social problems for youth with social anxiety disorder compared to those without social anxiety disorder. All youth experienced improved social functioning following treatment per child- and parent-reports. The results call for an increased focus on the social experiences of youth with anxiety disorders, and particularly loneliness, for children with social anxiety disorder. The results document ways that evidenced-based practice can improve social functioning for youth with anxiety disorders.

Adolescents' Involvement in Cyber Bullying and Perceptions of School: The Importance of Perceived Peer Acceptance for Female Adolescents

Young people are spending increasing amounts of time using digital technology and, as such, are at great risk of being involved in cyber bullying as a victim, bully, or bully/victim. Despite cyber bullying typically occurring outside the school environment, the impact of being involved in cyber bullying is likely to spill over to school. Fully 285 11- to 15-year-olds (125 male and 160 female, Mage = 12.19 years, SD = 1.03) completed measures of cyber bullying involvement, self-esteem, trust, perceived peer acceptance, and perceptions of the value of learning and the importance of school. For young women, involvement in cyber bullying as a victim, bully, or bully/victim negatively predicted perceptions of learning and school, and perceived peer acceptance mediated this relationship. The results indicated that involvement in cyber bullying negatively predicted perceived peer acceptance which, in turn, positively predicted perceptions of learning and school. For young men, fulfilling the bully/victim role negatively predicted perceptions of learning and school. Consequently, for young women in particular, involvement in cyber bullying spills over to impact perceptions of learning. The findings of the current study highlight how stressors external to the school environment can adversely impact young women's perceptions of school and also have implications for the development of interventions designed to ameliorate the effects of cyber bullying.

Interpersonal stressors in the schoolyard and depressive symptoms among Chinese adolescents: The mediating roles of rumination and co-rumination

Stressors have been identified as significant vulnerability factors in the development of adolescents’ depression. The present study focused on the relationship between depressive symptoms and two types of interpersonal stressors in the schoolyard, namely teacher-student interaction stressors (TSIS) and peer interaction stressors (PIS). More importantly, rumination and co-rumination were examined as two possible mechanisms to account for these relationships. A convenience sample of 570 Chinese adolescents aged from 12- to 19-years-old participated in this research. Results indicated that TSIS and PIS were significantly related to participants’ depressive symptoms. Furthermore, rumination partially mediated the relationship between PIS and depressive symptoms. Co-rumination was a partial mediator between both types of interpersonal stressors and depressive symptoms. Hence, rumination and co-rumination might serve as two mechanisms linking interpersonal stressors in the schoolyard and depressive mood in adolescence. The findings are discussed in the light of related literature and potential implications for school practitioners.

How children's victimization relates to distorted versus sensitive social cognition: Perception, mood, and need fulfillment in response to Cyberball inclusion and exclusion

This study examined whether victimization is associated with negatively distorted social cognition (bias), or with a specific increased sensitivity to social negative cues, by assessing the perception of social exclusion and the consequences for psychological well-being (moods and fundamental needs). Both self-reported and peer-reported victimization of 564 participants (M_age=9.9years, SD=1.04; 49.1% girls) were measured, and social exclusion was manipulated through inclusion versus exclusion in a virtual ball-tossing game (Cyberball). Children's perceptions and psychological well-being were in general more negative after exclusion than after inclusion. Moreover, self-reported-but not peer-reported-victimization was associated with the perception of being excluded more and receiving the ball less, as well as more negative moods and less fulfillment of fundamental needs, regardless of being excluded or included during the Cyberball game. In contrast, peer-reported victimization was associated with more negative mood and lower need fulfillment in the exclusion condition only. Together, these results suggest that children who themselves indicate being victimized have negatively distorted social cognition, whereas children who are being victimized according to their peers experience increased sensitivity to negative social situations. The results stress the importance of distinguishing between self-reported and peer-reported victimization and have implications for interventions aimed at victimized children's social cognition.

Rethinking pathology in adolescent self-harm: Towards a more complex understanding of risk factors

Researchers have begun to consider whether there may be more than one psychological profile to describe adolescents who engage in self-harm. Limited past research suggests multiple different profiles. Australian high school students (n = 1,521, age 11-19, 56.4% female) completed an online questionnaire reporting risk and protective factors and self-harm frequency. Non-hierarchical cluster analysis allocated 256 students who reported 6-month self-harm to mutually exclusive profiles based on psychological similarity. Five distinct psychological profiles were identified: 1) Psychologically 'normal'; 2) Anxiety symptoms; 3) Impulsive; 4) Pathological; and 5) Pathological-Impulsive. The proportion of adolescents that reported 11 or more episodes of self-harm varied from 5.7% in the psychologically 'Normal' group to 27.7% in the 'Pathological- Impulsive' group. These results indicate that multiple psychological profiles exist. Adolescents with different risk factors may require disparate strategies for treatment and prevention. Given the variability in profiles, screening may assist in detecting adolescents who self-harm.

Cyberbullying Victimization in Adolescents as Related to Body Esteem, Social Support, and Social Self-Efficacy

The authors examined cyberbullying victimization in the context of issues of key importance to youth: body esteem, social support, and social self-efficacy. Research has found that traditional peer-bullying victimization is significantly correlated with low body esteem in Western societies, especially pertaining to weight (R. Puhl & J. Luedicke, 2012 ). Studies have also found a relationship among bullying victimization, appearance-related bullying, low body esteem, and psychosocial difficulties among youth (L. E. Park, R. M. Calogero, A.F. Young, & A. Diraddo, 2010 ). However, the emergence of cyberbullying, characterized by its own special features (P. K. Smith et al., 2008 ), has raised a salient need to explore the relationship between cyber victimization and body esteem, no less important with social framework, because both are key components in adolescents' lives that may be associated with cyberbullying victimization. The authors examined these relationships among 204 Israeli adolescents 14-16 years old. The results indicate a noteworthy prevalence (45%) of cyber victims. Cyber victimization is significantly correlated with low body esteem and low social support and social self-efficacy. Low body esteem and low social support predicted the probability of being a cyber victim. The results extend the knowledge about potential personal and social risk factors for cyber victimization during adolescence. Implications for specific intervention programs are discussed.

Social Information Processing Mechanisms and Victimization: A Literature Review

The aim of the current literature review, which is based on 64 empirical studies, was to assess to what extent mechanisms of the Social Information Processing (SIP) model of Crick and Dodge (1994) are related to victimization. The reviewed studies have provided support for the relation between victimization and several social information processing mechanisms, especially the interpretation of cues and self-efficacy (as part of the response decision). The relationship between victimization and other mechanisms, such as the response generation, was only studied in a few articles. Until now research has often focused on just one step of the model, instead of attempting to measure the associations between multiple mechanisms and victimization in multivariate analyses. Such analyses would be interesting to gain more insight into the SIP model and its relationship with victimization. The few available longitudinal studies show that mechanisms both predict victimization (internal locus of control, negative self-evaluations and less assertive response selection) and are predicted by victimization (hostile attribution of intent and negative evaluations of others). Associations between victimization and SIP mechanisms vary across different types and severity of victimization (stronger in personal and severe victimization), and different populations (stronger among young victims). Practice could focus on these stronger associations and the interpretation of cues. More research is needed however, to investigate whether intervention programs that address SIP mechanisms are suitable for victimization and all relevant populations.

They made you perfect: A test of the Social Reaction Model of Perfectionism

Perfectionism serves as a mediator in the relationship between difficult life experiences and psychological distress, but to date no research has examined the effect of recalled peer victimization on perfectionism and adult depressive symptomatology (DS). The present study assessed the Social Reaction Model of Perfectionism (SRMP; Flett, Hewitt, Oliver, & Macdonald (2002b). Perfectionism in children and their parents: A developmental analysis. In G. L. Flett and P. L. Hewitt (Eds.), Perfectionism: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 89-132). Washington: American Psychological Association), which proposes that perfectionism (self-oriented, other-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism) results from harsh experiences. This may include experiences of peer victimization (physical, verbal and indirect). The model was extended to also include adult DS and rumination (brooding and reflection). Self-report questionnaires measuring recalled childhood experiences of peer victimization (Owens, Daly, & Slee (2005). Aggressive Behavior, 31, 1-12. doi: 10.1002/ab.20045), current trait perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett (1991). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456-470. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.60.3.456), rumination (Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow (1991). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 115-121. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.61.1.115) and DS (Radloff (1977). Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 386-401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306) were completed by 338 adult participants (54% female). Path-analyses revealed recalled indirect victimization to be associated with adults' self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism. However, only socially prescribed perfectionism mediated the relation between recalled indirect victimization and adult DS. Brooding rumination also mediated the effect of socially prescribed perfectionism upon DS. The findings support the SRMP, and extend the theory to include the effects of perfectionism on rumination and DS.

Cognitive vulnerabilities as mediators between emotional abuse and depressive symptoms

This study tested whether childhood parental emotional abuse and peer emotional bullying serve as antecedents of depression in adolescence and identified the cognitive mechanisms involved in this process. It was hypothesized that the experience of emotional abuse would predict depressive symptoms via development of rumination and negative inferences. A 3-wave longitudinal study was carried out with 998 adolescents (471 girls and 526 boys) between 13 and 17 years of age. Results showed that emotional abuse by parents and peers at Time 1 predicted a worsening of several cognitive vulnerabilities at Time 2. In addition, brooding mediated between the experiences of abuse and the increase of depressive symptoms at Time 3. Thus, findings suggest that the experiences of childhood emotional abuse by parents and peers serve as antecedents to develop a negative cognitive style, vulnerability that, once developed, is a risk factor for the onset of depressive symptoms in adolescence.

Peer victimization during adolescence: concurrent and prospective impact on symptoms of depression and anxiety

BACKGROUND

Peer victimization is ubiquitous across schools and cultures, and has the potential for long-lasting effects on the well-being of victims. To date, research has focused on the consequences of peer victimization during childhood but neglected adolescence. Peer relationships and approval become increasingly important during adolescence; thus, peer victimization at this age may have a damaging psychological impact.

METHODS

Participants were 5030 adolescents aged 11-16 recruited from secondary schools in the UK. Self-report measures of victimization and symptoms of anxiety and depression were administered on three occasions over a 12-month period. Latent growth models examined concurrent and prospective victimization-related elevations in anxiety and depression symptoms above individual-specific growth trajectories.

RESULTS

Peer victimization was associated with a concurrent elevation of 0.64 and 0.56 standard deviations in depression and anxiety scores, respectively. There was an independent delayed effect, with additional elevations in depression and anxiety (0.28 and 0.25 standard deviations) six months later. These concurrent and prospective associations were independent of expected symptom trajectories informed by individual risk factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescent peer victimization was associated with immediate and delayed elevations in anxiety and depression. Early intervention aimed at identifying and supporting victimized adolescents may prevent the development of these disorders.

Adolescent Coping Strategies in the Face Of Their “Worst Online Experience”

Adolescents' increased use of virtual environments (e.g., online games, social networking sites) provides opportunities for social and emotional learning and development. Negative online experiences in particular require adolescents to use social and emotional competencies to navigate these experiences. The present study used qualitative methods to describe adolescents' (N = 245; Median age ˜ 16) worst online experiences and to examine their coping strategies in managing these experiences. Results indicated that adolescents most frequently described negative experiences with themes of sexual and relational harassment, online stalking and feuds, followed by ethnic/racial harassment, online fraud, bystander experiences, and technical issues. Adolescents' coping strategies with these experiences included direct problem solving, positive cognitive restructuring, distraction, avoidance, and support seeking. Gender and white vs ethnic minority differences in negative online experience types and coping strategies were examined. Findings extend work that explores the application of offline coping strategies to virtual environments.

Bullying behaviour among Norwegian adolescents: psychiatric diagnoses and school well-being in a clinical sample

BACKGROUND

Few studies have focused the association between bullying and psychiatric disorders in clinical samples. The aim of this study was to examine if bullying behaviour was associated with psychiatric disorders and school well-being.

METHODS

The cross-sectional study was part of a health survey at St. Olav's University Hospital. The sample consisted of 685 adolescent patients aged 13-18 years who completed an electronic questionnaire. Clinical diagnoses were collected from clinical records.

RESULTS

In this clinical psychiatric sample, 19% reported being bullied often or very often, and 51% reported being bullied from time to time. Logistic regression analyses showed associations between being a victim and having a mood disorder, and between being involved in bullying behaviour and reporting lower scores on school well-being. No difference was found in bullying behaviour on gender, age and SES.

CONCLUSION

The risk of being a victim was high among adolescents in this clinical sample, especially among patients with mood disorders. Any involvement in bullying behaviour was associated with reduced school well-being.