Assessing perceptions of environments for active living

The physical environment matters: room effects on online purchase decisions

Introduction

People as individual consumers are regularly targeted in sustainability campaigns or communications with the hope of enhancing sustainable behavior at an individual level, with subsequent sustainability transformation at a larger societal scale. However, psychological motivation is complex and campaigns need to be based on an understanding for what individual, and contextual, factors support or hinder sustainable behavioral choices.

Methods

In a discrete choice experiment, participants made hypothetical online purchases in each of three rooms designed to evoke associations to hedonic, gain, and normative goal frames. Participants were shown a campaign message intended to prime sustainable textile consumption prior to the purchase. For each product (t-shirt or bananas) hedonic (comfort/look), gain (price), and normative (organic/ fairtrade) attributes were varied in an online choice experiment.

Results

Preferences for the normative attribute of t-shirts increased in the normative room compared to the room with gain associations. No effect of the rooms with hedonic or gain priming was observed on the choice.

Discussion

The study supports the hypothesis that the physical room can enhance goal frame activation and behavioral choice but concludes that such priming effect is sensitive to specificity of the prime.

Do Greener Urban Streets Provide Better Emotional Experiences? An Experimental Study on Chinese Tourists

Compared to the usual environment, the potential momentary emotional benefits of exposure to street-level urban green spaces (UGS) in the unusual environment have not received much academic attention. This study applies an online randomized control trial (RCT) with 299 potential tourists who have never visited Xi'an and proposes a regression model with mixed effects to scrutinize the momentary emotional effects of three scales (i.e., small, medium and large) and street types (i.e., traffic lanes, commercial pedestrian streets and culture and leisure walking streets). The results identify the possibility of causality between street-level UGS and tourists' momentary emotional experiences and indicate that tourists have better momentary emotional experiences when urban streets are intervened with large-scale green vegetation. The positive magnitude of the effect varies in all three types of streets and scales of intervention, while the walking streets with typical cultural attractions, have a larger impact relative to those with daily commute elements. These research results can provide guidance for UGS planning and the green design of walking streets in tourism.

Exploring Perceived and Objective Measures of the Neighborhood Environment and Associations with Physical Activity among Adults: A Review and a Meta-Analytic Structural Equation Model

There is an urgent need to understand factors that promote physical activities (PA) because it is one of the modifiable risk factors for global mortality. None of the previous reviews considered both perceived and objective characteristics of the same environment. The first aim was to review the literature on studies investigating the relationship between PA behavior of adults and perceived and objective physical environment measures. The second aim was to verify the potential mediational role of the perceived measure in the relationship between the objective measure of the environment and PA using meta-analytic SEM. Only 15 studies reported a relationship between PA and both environmental measures. One of the most studied characteristics of the physical environment is the accessibility to recreational/PA facilities. Both objective and subjective measures of accessibility to PA facilities are associated with PA. Meta-SEM results suggest a significant effect of the objective accessibility to facilities on PA behavior (β = 0.15) and on the perceived measure (β = 0.10), but the indirect effect was not significant. No significant effect was found for the perceived measure on PA, suggesting that individuals' level of awareness about their environments may have played a role. This prompts a need to create awareness campaigns.

Perceived urban green and residents' health in Beijing

Green space serves urban residents in various functions including promoting health, but the roles of different types of green space are unclear. A survey titled "Healthy Neighborhood" was conducted in Beijing from May to July 2019 to examine and compare the associations between three types of perceived green space (park green, public-square green and utility green) and three aspects of residents' health (physical health, mental health and social health). Results from the multilevel modeling (MLM) analysis show that the perceived park green has a positive correlation with mental health, and all three types of perceived green space correlate with social health positively. No significant correlation of any type of green space is detected on participants' physical health, nor any relation of public-square green or utility green to their mental health. Overall the role of urban green space is stronger on social health than physical and mental health. The findings support the complementary roles of different types of green space, and suggest that expansion in utility greens could be as effective as investing in more costly park and public-square greens, especially in their benefit in promoting social health.

Exploring Pattern of Green Spaces (GSs) and Their Impact on Climatic Change Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies: Evidence from a Saudi Arabian City

Green spaces (GSs) are significant, nature-based solutions to climate change and have immense potential to reduce vulnerability to heat waves while enhancing the resilience of urban areas in the light of climate change. However, in the Saudi context, the availability of GSs across cities and their perceived role in climate change mitigations and adaptation strategies remain unexplored. This study aimed to examine the per capita availability of GSs in the Jeddah megacity in Saudi Arabia, and their role in climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies. This study assessed the per capita availability of GS in Jeddah city using GIS techniques, and a questionnaire survey (online and an onsite) was conducted to assess the GSs users’ perception of the role of GSs on climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies. Non-parametric tests were also used to find differences in roles based on socio-demographic attributes. The findings of the study revealed that: (i) the per capita availability of GS in Jeddah is relatively low in comparison to international organization recommendations (such as World Health Organization and European Union). As per the survey result, it was reported that GSs play crucial role for climate change mitigation such as temperature regulation, reduction in heat stress, enhancement outdoor thermal comfort, and the maintenance of air quality. More than 85% of the total respondents agreed with the very high importance of GSs for climate change mitigation. More than 80% of respondents in the city highly agreed with climate change adaptation strategies such as the enhancement of accessibility to GSs, ecosystem-based protection of GSs, and the improvement of per capita availability of GSs. The findings of the study will be very helpful to planners and policymakers in implementing nature-based solutions to reduce vulnerability to climate change in Jeddah city, and particularly other cities in a desert environment.

Urban views and their impacts on citizens: A grounded theory study of Sanandaj city

This research deals with urban views and their impacts on citizens, as well as to identify the factors that create and influence urban views and their impacts. The research method was adopted as a grounded theory, in which open coding, axial coding, and selective coding analysis were performed based on the Strauss and Corbin procedures. Data were collected from field studies, interviews and semi-structured questionnaires. The participants included 48 citizens and 12 experts. The researchers spent a lot of time on purposeful roaming in the city to explore the vibrant city views, and enough time was spent interviewing citizens and research samples in the city of Sanandaj. Regarding urban views, the terms in the literature became more complete in new categories included Spot View, Focal View, Continuous View, Tunnel View, Planar View, Blocked View, and Layered View. Regarding the reasons for desirability or undesirability of views, five main categories identified included Natural Elements, Visual Harmony, Spatial Proportions, Identity, and Visual Disturbance.

Video Analysis of Pedestrian Movement (VAPM) under Different Lighting Conditions—Method Exploration

When daylight hours are limited, pedestrians are dependent on appropriate outdoor lighting. Although new city lighting applications must consider both energy usage and pedestrian responses, current methods used to capture pedestrian walking behaviour during dark conditions in real settings are limited. This study reports on the development and evaluation of a video-based method that analyses pedestrians’ microscopic movements (VAPM—video analysis of pedestrian movements), including placement and speed, in an artificially lit outdoor environment. In a field study utilising between-subjects design, 62 pedestrians walked along the same path under two different lighting applications. VAPM accurately discriminated pedestrians’ microscopic movements in the two lighting applications. By incorporating methodological triangulation, VAPM successfully complemented observer-based assessments of pedestrians’ perceptions and evaluations of the two lighting applications. It is suggested that in evaluations of pedestrian responses to city lighting applications, observer-based assessments could be successfully combined with an analysis of actual pedestrian movement while walking in the lit environment. However, prior to employing a large-scale application of VAPM, the methodology needs to be further adapted for use with drones and integration into smart city lighting systems.

A Theoretical Model for Urban Walking Among People With Disabilities

This paper is an attempt to advance research on walking at a neighborhood level of analysis for people with disabilities by proposing a theoretical model that combines the knowledge of two disciplines: traffic planning and environmental psychology. The aim is to provide guidance for a discussion and a plan for future interdisciplinary investigations by proposing a model that accounts for the dynamic interaction between environmental characteristics, human processes, and walking experience among individuals with a disability. For this purpose, traffic planners, and environmental psychologists came together to discuss theories, concepts, and thematic relevance in a series of focus group meetings. These meetings led to the selection of the Human Environment Interaction (HEI) model, originally developed from the field of environmental psychology and operationalized to describe how walking experiences result from the interplay between individual abilities, emotional processes, and the physical and social characteristics of the environment (Küller, 1991). The proposed model aims to sustain interdisciplinary discussion and research planning around the topic of neighborhood walking for people with disabilities. By operationalizing each dimension in the model, a good fit between groups with disabilities and individual differences associated with walking experiences is assumed, which, in turn, will have the potential to provide a more conscious analysis of wellbeing-related outcomes, such as usability of the environment, frequency of mobility, and quality of life. However, to improve understanding of urban walking at a neighborhood level for people with disabilities, empirical studies must be carried out to test the proposed model.

Longitudinal associations between perceptions of the neighbourhood environment and physical activity in adolescents: evidence from the Olympic Regeneration in East London (ORiEL) study

BACKGROUND

Most UK adolescents do not achieve recommended levels of physical activity. Previous studies suggested that perceptions of the neighbourhood environment could contribute to explain differences in physical activity behaviours. We aimed to examine whether five measures of perceptions - perceived bus stop proximity, traffic safety, street connectivity, enjoyment of the neighbourhood for walking/cycling, and personal safety - were longitudinally associated with common forms of physical activity, namely walking to school, walking for leisure, and a composite measure of outdoor physical activity. We further aimed to investigate the moderating role of gender.

METHODS

We used longitudinal data from the Olympic Regeneration in East London (ORiEL) study, a prospective cohort study. In 2012, 3106 adolescents aged 11 to 12 were recruited from 25 schools in 4 deprived boroughs of East London. Adolescents were followed-up in 2013 and 2014. The final sample includes 2260 adolescents surveyed at three occasions. We estimated logistic regression models using Generalised Estimating Equations to test the plausibility of hypotheses on the nature of the longitudinal associations (general association, cumulative effect, co-varying trajectories), adjusting for potential confounders. Item non-response was handled using multiple imputation.

RESULTS

Longitudinal analyses indicate little evidence that perceptions of the neighbourhood are important predictors of younger adolescent physical activity. There was weak evidence that greater perceived proximity to bus stops is associated with a small decrease in the probability of walking for leisure. Results also indicate that poorer perception of personal safety decreases the probability of walking for leisure. There was some indication that better perception of street connectivity is associated with more outdoor physical activity. Finally, we found very little evidence that the associations between perceptions of the neighbourhood and physical activity differed by gender.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that younger adolescents' perceptions of their neighbourhood environment, and changes in these perceptions, did not consistently predict physical activity in a deprived and ethnically diverse urban population. Future studies should use situation-specific measures of the neighbourhood environment and physical activity to better capture the hypothesised processes and explore the relative roles of the objective environment, parental and adolescents' perceptions in examining differences in types of physical activity.

The Effect of Soundscapes and Lightscapes on the Perception of Safety and Social Presence Analyzed in a Laboratory Experiment

The present study evaluates the effect of soundscape and lightscape variations on the perceived safety and perceived social presence in a pedestrian area through laboratory experiments. Thirty-one participants were presented with nine different virtual scenarios, in which the same underpass was reproduced under different soundscape and lightscape conditions. The participants were asked to assess each scenario considering 10 items related to perceived safety and perceived social presence. A principal component analysis allowed the 10 items to be reduced to two principal components, namely “perceived safety” and “perceived social presence”. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA analysis was conducted to assess the effect of modifications of both the soundscape and lightscape on the two components. The obtained results showed that the soundscape had an effect on both the perceived safety (p < 0.05) and perceived social presence (p < 0.05), while the lightscape variations implemented in this experiment only had a statistically significant effect on the latter (p < 0.05). The results of such studies may be of interest for public design and management as they may be conducted by means of non-intrusive and cost-effective techniques.

Neighborhood walkability and physical activity among older women: Tests of mediation by environmental perceptions and moderation by depressive symptoms

Features that enhance neighborhood walkability (higher population density, street connectivity and access to destinations) are associated with higher levels of physical activity among older adults. The perceived neighborhood environment appears to mediate associations between the objective built environment and physical activity. The role of depressed mood in these associations is poorly understood. We examined the degree to which depressive symptoms moderated indirect associations between the objective neighborhood environment and physical activity via the perceived neighborhood environment in older women. We analyzed data on 60,133 women (mean age = 73.1 ± 6.7 years) in the U.S. Nurses' Health Study cohort who completed the 2008 questionnaire. Self-reported measures included the Geriatric Depression Scale, perceived presence of recreational facilities, retail destinations, sidewalks, and crime, and participation in recreational physical activity and neighborhood walking. We created an objective walkability index by summing z-scores of intersection and facility counts within 1200-meter residential network buffers and census tract-level population density. We used multiple regression with bootstrap-generated 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals (BC CIs) to test for mediation and moderated mediation. Objective walkability was associated with 1.99 times greater odds of neighborhood walking (95% BC CI = 1.92, 2.06) and 1.38 times greater odds of meeting physical activity recommendations (95% BC CI = 1.34, 1.43) via the perceived neighborhood environment. These indirect associations were weaker among women with higher depressive symptom scores. Positive associations between objective neighborhood walkability and physical activities such as walking among older women may be strengthened with a reduction in their depressive symptoms.

Perception of Urban Environmental Risks and the Effects of Urban Green Infrastructures (UGIs) on Human Well-being in Four Public Green Spaces of Guangzhou, China

Cities face many challenging environmental problems that affect human well-being. Environmental risks can be reduced by Urban Green Infrastructures (UGIs). The effects of UGIs on the urban environment have been widely studied, but less attention has been given to the public perception of these effects. This paper presents the results of a study in Guangzhou, China, on UGI users' perceptions of these effects and their relationship with sociodemographic variables. A questionnaire survey was conducted in four public green spaces. Descriptive statistics, a binary logistic regression model and cross-tabulation analysis were applied on the data from 396 valid questionnaires. The results show that UGI users were more concerned about poor air quality and high temperature than about flooding events. Their awareness of environmental risks was partly in accordance with official records. Regarding the perception of the impacts of environmental risks on human well-being, elderly and female respondents with higher education levels were the most sensitive to these impacts. The respondents' perceptions of these impacts differed among the different green spaces. The effects of UGIs were well perceived and directly observed by the UGI users, but were not significantly influenced by most sociodemographic variables. Moreover, tourists had a lower perception of the impacts of environmental risks and the effects of UGI than residents did. This study provides strong support for UGIs as an effective tool to mitigate environmental risks. Local governments should consider the role of UGIs in environmental risk mitigation and human well-being with regard to urban planning and policy making.

Objectively-assessed neighbourhood destination accessibility and physical activity in adults from 10 countries: An analysis of moderators and perceptions as mediators

RATIONALE

Residents of neighbourhoods with high destination accessibility (higher population density, more-interconnected streets, and better access to services, public transport and parks) are more physically active. Evidence on the factors that underlie these associations is sparse and inconsistent.

OBJECTIVE

We examined (1) five socio-demographic and four non-destination perceived neighbourhood attributes as moderators of the relationship between objectively-assessed destination accessibility and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA); (2) perceived indicators of destination accessibility as mediators of those relationships; and, (3) the generalizability of findings across 14 cities.

METHODS

Data were from the International Physical Activity and Environment Network (IPEN) Adult study (N = 6822), which provided comparable objective and perceived environmental variables and accelerometer-based MVPA from 14 cities across 10 countries. Mediation and mediation moderation analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Objective net residential density, public transport density, and number of parks in the neighbourhood were consistently associated with MVPA across all examined socio-demographic groups and non-destination perceived neighbourhood characteristics. However, only the association between number of parks and MVPA was mediated by its conceptually-comparable perceived indicator. While the associations of objective intersection density and land use mix with MVPA were moderated by both gender and perceived pedestrian infrastructure/safety, only the latter moderating effects were mediated by the conceptually-comparable perceived indicators. Perceived neighbourhood safety and/or aesthetics moderated the associations of objective ratio of retail/civic land to total area and distance to nearest transport stop with MVPA. These associations were not mediated by the conceptually-comparable perceived indicators.

CONCLUSION

Densely populated neighbourhoods with access to public transport and parks have the potential to significantly and equitably contribute to adults' MVPA on a global scale. Perceived neighbourhood aesthetics, pedestrian-friendliness and safety can magnify the positive effects of mixed-use neighbourhoods on residents' MVPA by interacting with the perceived ease of access to a variety of destinations.

Using local knowledge and sustainable transport to promote a greener city: The case of Bucharest, Romania

Cities undergoing climate change and rapid urbanization are faced with significant transformational processes that affect the environment and society, challenging them to become more sustainable and resilient. The promotion of nature-based solutions represents an efficient approach to meet sustainability targets in cities and improve the quality of life of citizens. The association of large components of green infrastructure, such as urban parks, with physical activity can counteract the sedentary lifestyle endemic to cities and improve the overall health and well-being of individuals (Carrus et al., 2013; Scopelliti et al., 2016). By promoting a sustainable means of transport and connecting green spaces within a highly urbanized city, bicycle lanes represent an effective tool for associating physical activity with nature in cities allowing bicycle users to benefit from the positive health effects of nature-based solutions. Our study focuses on the potential of bicycle lanes to improve functional connectivity among green spaces. We administered 820 questionnaires in 34 green spaces (i.e., urban parks) in Bucharest, Romania, to identify the factors influencing the use of bicycle lanes connecting urban parks and to understand which planning criteria for bicycle lanes are considered as the most important by park visitors. We applied binary and ordinal logistic regressions and found that the factors affecting bicycle lane use are illegally parked cars and lack of accessibility to urban parks. The criteria preferred by park visitors for bicycle lane planning are determined by experience level and frequency of bicycle use. To develop a functional and integrated bicycle lane network that can make cities healthier and more sustainable, policy makers are advised to engage in a public participatory process and focus on the needs of bicycle users.

Active Transportation on a Complete Street: Perceived and Audited Walkability Correlates

Few studies of walkability include both perceived and audited walkability measures. We examined perceived walkability (Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale—Abbreviated, NEWS-A) and audited walkability (Irvine–Minnesota Inventory, IMI) measures for residents living within 2 km of a “complete street”—one renovated with light rail, bike lanes, and sidewalks. For perceived walkability, we found some differences but substantial similarity between our final scales and those in a prior published confirmatory factor analysis. Perceived walkability, in interaction with distance, was related to complete street active transportation. Residents were likely to have active transportation on the street when they lived nearby and perceived good aesthetics, crime safety, and traffic safety. Audited walkability, analyzed with decision trees, showed three general clusters of walkability areas, with 12 specific subtypes. A subset of walkability items (n = 11), including sidewalks, zebra-striped crosswalks, decorative sidewalks, pedestrian signals, and blank walls combined to cluster street segments. The 12 subtypes yielded 81% correct classification of residents’ active transportation. Both perceived and audited walkability were important predictors of active transportation. For audited walkability, we recommend more exploration of decision tree approaches, given their predictive utility and ease of translation into walkability interventions.

The observed and perceived neighborhood environment and physical activity among urban-dwelling adults: The moderating role of depressive symptoms

RATIONALE

Physical environmental features of neighborhoods are associated with physical activity, but the influence of mental health factors, such as depression, on these associations is poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

We examined whether the perceived neighborhood environment mediated associations between the observed neighborhood environment and physical activity, and whether these associations were moderated by depressive symptoms.

METHODS

Data consisted of systematic social observations of 343 neighborhoods and resident surveys. Participants' (N = 2969) mean age was 41.9 ± 16.2 years, 60.2% were female, and 67.9% were non-White. We conducted multiple linear regression and tests for mediation and moderated mediation.

RESULTS

Observed recreation facilities, commercial destinations, physical disorder, and physical deterioration were indirectly associated with walking via perceived neighborhood environment variables. Observed recreation facilities was indirectly and positively associated with leisure-time physical activity via perceived park access, and indirectly and inversely associated with walking and leisure-time physical activity via perceived traffic danger, but only among participants with low depressive symptom scores. Observed recreation facilities was indirectly and inversely associated, and observed physical disorder and physical deterioration were indirectly and positively associated with walking via perceived disorder, but only among participants with high depressive symptom scores.

CONCLUSION

Depressive symptoms affected the strength and direction of associations between the observed neighborhood environment and physical activity via residents' perceptions.

Direct and Indirect Associations Between the Built Environment and Leisure and Utilitarian Walking in Older Women

BACKGROUND

The built environment predicts walking in older adults, but the degree to which associations between the objective built environment and walking for different purposes are mediated by environmental perceptions is unknown.

PURPOSE

We examined associations between the neighborhood built environment and leisure and utilitarian walking and mediation by the perceived environment among older women.

METHODS

Women (N = 2732, M age = 72.8 ± 6.8 years) from Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and California completed a neighborhood built environment and walking survey. Objective population and intersection density and density of stores and services variables were created within residential buffers. Perceived built environment variables included measures of land use mix, street connectivity, infrastructure for walking, esthetics, traffic safety, and personal safety. Regression and bootstrapping were used to test associations and indirect effects.

RESULTS

Objective population, stores/services, and intersection density indirectly predicted leisure and utilitarian walking via perceived land use mix (odds ratios (ORs) = 1.01-1.08, 95 % bias corrected and accelerated confidence intervals do not include 1). Objective density of stores/services directly predicted ≥150 min utilitarian walking (OR = 1.11; 95% CI = 1.02, 1.22). Perceived land use mix (ORs = 1.16-1.44) and esthetics (ORs = 1.24-1.61) significantly predicted leisure and utilitarian walking, CONCLUSIONS: Perceived built environment mediated associations between objective built environment variables and walking for leisure and utilitarian purposes. Interventions for older adults should take into account how objective built environment characteristics may influence environmental perceptions and walking.

Association between intersection characteristics and perceived crash risk among school-aged children

This research examined how environmental attributes near intersections influence the perceived crash risk among school-aged children, which provides information on the potential risks of pedestrian crashes that can guide the development of proactive countermeasures. In a sample of 799 children aged 10-12 years old in Korea, the environmental attributes of intersections perceived as having a high risk of producing crashes near elementary schools were investigated using standard negative binomial and zero-inflated negative binomial models.The results showed that a higher number of student crossings, a wider road width, the presence of crosswalks, student-friendly facilities at the intersection, and four-way intersections were significant and positively associated with perceived crash risk among school-aged children. The findings related to building characteristics indicated that a higher number of entrances at an intersection increased the perceived crash risk while higher visibility at the intersection reduced the perception of risk. Associations with traffic-calming measures were weak,suggesting that the measures used in the study areas were not effective in reducing the perceived crash risk. The results of a police-reported crash model showed that school-aged children have a relatively accurate perception of crash risk and that the perceived crash risk of school-aged children may provide valuable information on the intersection characteristics in need of attention near school sites.

Perceived Spaciousness and Preference in Sequential Experience

OBJECTIVE

We assessed the perceived spaciousness and preference for a destination space in relation to six attributes (size, lighting, window size, texture, wall mural, and amount of furniture) of it and of the space experienced before it.

BACKGROUND

Studies have examined effects of these attributes but not for dynamic experience or preference.

METHOD

We created 24 virtual reality walks between each possible pair of two levels of each attribute. For each destination space, 31 students (13 men, 18 women) rated spaciousness and 30 students (16 men, 14 women) rated preference. We conducted separate 2 × 2 repeated-measure ANOVAs across each condition for perceived spaciousness and preference.

RESULTS

Participants judged the space that was larger, was more brightly lit, with a larger window, or with less furniture as the more spacious. These attributes also increased preference. Consonant with adaptation-level theory, participants judged offices as higher in spaciousness and preference if preceded by a space that was smaller, was more dimly lit, or had smaller windows.

CONCLUSION

The findings suggest that perceived spaciousness varies with size, lightness, window size, and amount of furniture but that perception also depends on the size, lightness, and size of the space experienced before.

APPLICATION

Designers could use the findings to manipulate features to make a space appear larger or more desirable.

Relations of Neighborhood Environment Influences, Physical Activity, and Active Transportation to/from School across African American, Latino American, and White Girls in the United States

BACKGROUND

Neighborhood environment influences may be particularly important for understanding physical activity (PA) patterns across ethnic subgroups of early adolescent girls.

PURPOSE

This study examined relationships between neighborhood variables, moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and active transportation to/from school across African American, Latino American, and White early adolescent girls living in an urban/suburban community in the northwestern U.S.A. Relations between the neighborhood variables across ethnic groups also were examined.

METHOD

The sample comprised 372 African American, Latino American, and White girls living in the U.S.A. (mean age = 12.06 years; SD = 1.69).

RESULTS

Data were analyzed using multiple-sample structural equation modeling. Results showed that girls' MVPA was positively related to physical activity facility accessibility and negatively related to age. Active transport was positively related to physical activity facility accessibility, neighborhood walkability, and age, and negatively related to distance to the nearest school and household income.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight the importance of both perceived and objective neighborhood influences on girls' MVPA and active transport. Consistencies in findings across African American, Latino American, and White girls suggest that neighborhood-level PA promotion has the potential for broad impact across all three ethnic groups.

Which environmental factors most strongly influence a street's appeal for bicycle transport among adults? A conjoint study using manipulated photographs

Background

Micro-environmental factors (specific features within a streetscape), instead of macro-environmental factors (urban planning features), are more feasible to modify in existing neighborhoods and thus more practical to target for environmental interventions. Because it is often not possible to change the whole micro-environment at once, the current study aims to determine which micro-environmental factors should get the priority to target in physical environmental interventions increasing bicycle transport. Additionally, interaction effects among micro-environmental factors on the street’s appeal for bicycle transport will be determined.

Methods

In total, 1950 middle-aged adults completed a web-based questionnaire consisting of a set of 12 randomly assigned choice tasks with manipulated photographs. Seven micro-environmental factors (type of cycle path, speed limit, speed bump, vegetation, evenness of the cycle path surface, general upkeep and traffic density) were manipulated in each photograph. Conjoint analysis was used to analyze the data.

Results

Providing streets with a cycle path separated from motorized traffic seems to be the best strategy to increase the street’s appeal for adults’ bicycle transport. If this adjustment is not practically feasible, micro-environmental factors related to safety (i.e. speed limit, traffic density) may be more effective in promoting bicycle transport than micro-environmental factors related to comfort (i.e. evenness of the cycle path surface) or aesthetic (i.e. vegetation, general upkeep). On the other hand, when a more separated cycle path is already provided, micro-environmental factors related to comfort or aesthetic appeared to become more prominent.

Conclusions

Findings obtained from this research could provide advice to physical environmental interventions about which environmental factors should get priority to modify in different environmental situations.

Trial registration

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Ghent University Hospital. Trial registration: B670201318588. Registered at 04/10/2013. http://www.ugent.be/ge/nl/faculteit/raden/ec

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12942-016-0058-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Differences in environmental preferences towards cycling for transport among adults: a latent class analysis

BACKGROUND

Increasing cycling for transport can contribute to improve public health among adults. Micro-environmental factors (i.e. small-scaled street-setting features) may play an important role in affecting the street's appeal to cycle for transport. Understanding about the interplay between individuals and their physical environment is important to establish tailored environmental interventions. Therefore, the current study aimed to examine whether specific subgroups exist based on similarities in micro-environmental preferences to cycle for transport.

METHODS

Responses of 1950 middle-aged adults (45-65 years) on a series of choice tasks depicting potential cycling routes with manipulated photographs yielded three subgroups with different micro-environmental preferences using latent class analysis.

RESULTS

Although latent class analysis revealed three different subgroups in the middle-aged adult population based on their environmental preferences, results indicated that cycle path type (i.e. a good separated cycle path) is the most important environmental factor for all participants and certainly for individuals who did not cycle for transport. Furthermore, only negligible differences were found between the importances of the other micro-environmental factors (i.e. traffic density, evenness of the cycle path, maintenance, vegetation and speed limits) regarding the two at risk subgroups and that providing a speed bump obviously has the least impact on the street's appeal to cycle for transport.

CONCLUSIONS

Results from the current study indicate that only negligible differences were found between the three subgroups. Therefore, it might be suggested that tailored environmental interventions are not required in this research context.

Street characteristics preferred for transportation walking among older adults: a choice-based conjoint analysis with manipulated photographs

BACKGROUND

Knowledge about the relationships between micro-scale environmental factors and older adults' walking for transport is limited and inconsistent. This is probably due to methodological limitations, such as absence of an accurate neighborhood definition, lack of environmental heterogeneity, environmental co-variation, and recall bias. Furthermore, most previous studies are observational in nature. We aimed to address these limitations by investigating the effects of manipulating photographs on micro-scale environmental factors on the appeal of a street for older adults' transportation walking. Secondly, we used latent class analysis to examine whether subgroups could be identified that have different environmental preferences for transportation walking. Thirdly, we investigated whether these subgroups differed in socio-demographic, functional and psychosocial characteristics, current level of walking and environmental perceptions of their own street.

METHODS

Data were collected among 1131 Flemish older adults through an online (n = 940) or an interview version of the questionnaire (n = 191). This questionnaire included a choice-based conjoint exercise with manipulated photographs of a street. These manipulated photographs originated from one panoramic photograph of an existing street that was manipulated on nine environmental attributes. Participants chose which of two presented streets they would prefer to walk for transport.

RESULTS

In the total sample, sidewalk evenness had by far the greatest appeal for transportation walking. The other environmental attributes were less important. Four subgroups that differed in their environmental preferences for transportation walking were identified. In the two largest subgroups (representing 86% of the sample) sidewalk evenness was the most important environmental attribute. In the two smaller subgroups (each comprising 7% of the sample), traffic volume and speed limit were the most important environmental attributes for one, and the presence of vegetation and a bench were the most important environmental attributes for the other. This latter subgroup included a higher percentage of service flat residents than the other subgroups.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that the provision of even sidewalks should be considered a priority when developing environmental interventions aiming to stimulate older adults' transportation walking. Natural experiments are needed to confirm whether our findings can be translated to real environments and actual transportation walking behavior.

Creating Cycling-Friendly Environments for Children: Which Micro-Scale Factors Are Most Important? An Experimental Study Using Manipulated Photographs

BACKGROUND

Increasing participation in transportation cycling represents a useful strategy for increasing children's physical activity levels. Knowledge on how to design environments to encourage adoption and maintenance of transportation cycling is limited and relies mainly on observational studies. The current study experimentally investigates the relative importance of micro-scale environmental factors for children's transportation cycling, as these micro-scale factors are easier to change within an existing neighborhood compared to macro-scale environmental factors (i.e. connectivity, land-use mix, …).

METHODS

Researchers recruited children and their parents (n = 1232) via 45 randomly selected schools across Flanders and completed an online questionnaire which consisted of 1) demographic questions; and 2) a choice-based conjoint (CBC) task. During this task, participants chose between two photographs which we had experimentally manipulated in seven micro-scale environmental factors: type of cycle path; evenness of cycle path; traffic speed; traffic density; presence of speed bumps; environmental maintenance; and vegetation. Participants indicated which route they preferred to (let their child) cycle along. To find the relative importance of these micro-scale environmental factors, we conducted Hierarchical Bayes analyses.

RESULTS

Type of cycle path emerged as the most important factor by far among both children and their parents, followed by traffic density and maintenance, and evenness of the cycle path among children. Among parents, speed limits and maintenance emerged as second most important, followed by evenness of the cycle path, and traffic density.

CONCLUSION

Findings indicate that improvements in micro-scale environmental factors might be effective for increasing children's transportation cycling, since they increase the perceived supportiveness of the physical environment for transportation cycling. Investments in creating a clearly designated space for the young cyclist, separated from motorized traffic, appears to be the most effective way to increase perceived supportiveness. Future research should confirm our laboratory findings with experimental on-site research.

Does the Effect of Micro-Environmental Factors on a Street's Appeal for Adults' Bicycle Transport Vary across Different Macro-Environments? An Experimental Study

BACKGROUND

Characteristics of the physical environment can be classified into two broad categories: macro- ("raw" urban planning features influenced on a regional level) and micro- (features specifically within a streetscape influenced on a neighborhood level) environmental factors. In urban planning applications, it is more feasible to modify conditions at the neighborhood level than at the regional level. Yet for the promotion of bicycle transport we need to know whether relationships between micro-environmental factors and bicycle transport depend on different types of macro-environments. This study aimed to identify whether the effect of three micro-environmental factors (i.e., evenness of the cycle path surface, speed limits and type of separation between cycle path and motorized traffic) on the street's appeal for adults' bicycle transport varied across three different macro-environments (i.e., low, medium and high residential density street).

METHODS

In total, 389 middle-aged adults completed a web-based questionnaire consisting of socio-demographic characteristics and a series of choice tasks with manipulated photographs, depicting two possible routes to cycle along. Conjoint analysis was used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Although the magnitude of the overall effects differed, in each macro-environment (i.e., low, medium and high residential density), middle-aged adults preferred a speed limit of 30 km/h, an even cycle path surface and a hedge as separation between motorized traffic and the cycle path compared to a speed limit of 50 or 70 km/h, a slightly uneven or uneven cycle path surface and a curb as separation or no separation between motorized traffic and the cycle path.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that irrespective of the macro-environment, the same micro-environmental factors are preferred in middle-aged adults concerning the street's appeal for bicycle transport. The controlled environment simulations in the experimental choice task have the potential to inform real life environmental interventions and suggest that micro-environmental changes can have similar results in different macro-environments.

Older People's Perceptions of Pedestrian Friendliness and Traffic Safety: An Experiment Using Computer-Simulated Walking Environments

Traffic safety and pedestrian friendliness are considered to be important conditions for older people's motivation to walk through their environment. This study uses an experimental study design with computer-simulated living environments to investigate the effect of micro-scale environmental factors (parking spaces and green verges with trees) on older people's perceptions of both motivational antecedents (dependent variables). Seventy-four consecutively recruited older people were randomly assigned watching one of two scenarios (independent variable) on a computer screen. The scenarios simulated a stroll on a sidewalk, as it is 'typical' for a German city. In version 'A,' the subjects take a fictive walk on a sidewalk where a number of cars are parked partially on it. In version 'B', cars are in parking spaces separated from the sidewalk by grass verges and trees. Subjects assessed their impressions of both dependent variables. A multivariate analysis of covariance showed that subjects' ratings on perceived traffic safety and pedestrian friendliness were higher for Version 'B' compared to version 'A'. Cohen's d indicates medium (d = 0.73) and large (d = 1.23) effect sizes for traffic safety and pedestrian friendliness, respectively. The study suggests that elements of the built environment might affect motivational antecedents of older people's walking behavior.

Assessing cycling-friendly environments for children: are micro-environmental factors equally important across different street settings?

Background

As physical activity levels decrease as children age, sustainable and accessible forms of physical activity are needed from a young age. Transportation cycling is one such physical activity and has been associated with many benefits. The aims of the study were to identify whether manipulating micro-environmental factors (e.g. speed limits, evenness of cycle path) within a photographed street influences the perceived supportiveness for transportation cycling; and whether changing these micro-environmental factors has the same effect across different street settings.

Methods

We recruited 305 fifth and sixth grade children and their parents from twelve randomly selected primary schools in Flanders, Belgium. They completed a web-based questionnaire including 12 choice-based conjoint tasks, in which they had to choose between two possible routes depicted on manipulated photographs, which the child would cycle along. The routes differed in four attributes: general street setting (enclosed, half open, open), evenness of cycle path (very uneven, moderately uneven, even), speed limit (70 km/h, 50 km/h, 30 km/h) and degree of separation between a cycle path and motorised traffic (no separation, curb, hedge). Hierarchical Bayes analyses revealed the relative importance of each micro-environmental attribute across the three street settings.

Results

For each attribute, children and their parents chose routes that had the best alternative (i.e. open street setting, even cycle path, 30 km/h, a hedge separating the cycle path from motorised traffic). The evenness of the cycle path and lower speed limit had the largest effect for the children, while the degree of separation and lower speed limit had the largest effect for their parents. Interactions between micro-scale and macro-scale factors revealed differences in the magnitude but not direction of their effects on route choice. The results held across the different kinds of street settings tested.

Conclusions

Improving micro-scale attributes may increase the supportiveness of a street for children’s transportation cycling. We call for on-site research to test effects of changes in micro-environmental attributes on transportation cycling among children.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12966-015-0216-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Using manipulated photographs to identify features of streetscapes that may encourage older adults to walk for transport

Experimental evidence of environmental features important for physical activity is challenging to procure in real world settings. The current study aimed to investigate the causal effects of environmental modifications on a photographed street's appeal for older adults' walking for transport. Secondly, we examined whether these effects differed according to gender, functional limitations, and current level of walking for transport. Thirdly, we examined whether different environmental modifications interacted with each other. Qualitative responses were also reported to gain deeper insight into the observed quantitative relationships. Two sets of 16 panoramic photographs of a streetscape were created, in which six environmental factors were manipulated (sidewalk evenness, traffic level, general upkeep, vegetation, separation from traffic, and benches). Sixty older adults sorted these photographs on appeal for walking for transport on a 7-point scale and reported qualitative information on the reasons for their rankings. Sidewalk evenness appeared to have the strongest influence on a street's appeal for transport-related walking. The effect of sidewalk evenness was even stronger when the street's overall upkeep was good and when traffic was absent. Absence of traffic, presence of vegetation, and separation from traffic also increased a street's appeal for walking for transport. There were no moderating effects by gender or functional limitations. The presence of benches increased the streetscape's appeal among participants who already walked for transport at least an hour/week. The protocols and methods used in the current study carry the potential to further our understanding of environment-PA relationships. Our findings indicated sidewalk evenness as the most important environmental factor influencing a street's appeal for walking for transport among older adults. However, future research in larger samples and in real-life settings is needed to confirm current findings.

The effect of changing micro-scale physical environmental factors on an environment's invitingness for transportation cycling in adults: an exploratory study using manipulated photographs

Previous studies have shown convincing evidence for positive relationships between transportation cycling in adults and macro-scale physical environmental factors. In contrast, relationships are less consistent for more changeable, micro-scale environmental factors. The majority of existing studies used observational study designs, which cannot determine causality. The present mixed-methods study used manipulated photographs to determine causal relationships between micro-scale environmental factors and the environment’s invitingness for transportation cycling. Further, interactions among environmental factors and moderating effects of gender, age and educational level were investigated. For this study, panoramic photograph of a street was manipulated on eight environmental factors: traffic, speed bump, general upkeep, evenness of the cycle path, vegetation, separation of motorized traffic, separation with sidewalk and cycle path width. Sixty-six middle-aged adults participated in the study and sorted the manipulated panoramic photographs from least to most inviting to cycle for transportation. Participants also provided qualitative data on how they sorted the streets. Multilevel cross-classified modelling was used to analyse the relationships between the environmental manipulations and the invitingness-scores. The qualitative data were deductively categorized according to the environmental factors. All environmental factors, except for separation with sidewalk, proved to have a significant main effect on the invitingness-score for transportation cycling. Cycle path evenness appeared to have the strongest effect on the invitingness. This effect was even stronger in an environment with good compared to poorly overall upkeep. Another significant interaction effect showed that the invitingness decreased when both separations along the cycle path were present compared to only a separation with traffic. No moderating effects of the demographic factors on these relationships were found. Qualitative data confirmed the observed quantitative relationships and added depth and understanding. Current study shows that the use of manipulated photographs can be an effective way to examine environment-physical activity relationships. Our findings indicate that evenness of the cycle path may be a crucial environmental factor when aiming to increase a street’s invitingness for transportation cycling among middle-aged adults. The findings of our exploratory study could be used to develop an environmental intervention to determine if our findings are applicable to real changes in cycling behavior.

No effect of ambient odor on the affective appraisal of a desktop virtual environment with signs of disorder

Background

Desktop virtual environments (VEs) are increasingly deployed to study the effects of environmental qualities and interventions on human behavior and safety related concerns in built environments. For these applications it is essential that users appraise the affective qualities of the VE similar to those of its real world counterpart. Previous studies have shown that factors like simulated lighting, sound and dynamic elements all contribute to the affective appraisal of a desktop VE. Since ambient odor is known to affect the affective appraisal of real environments, and has been shown to increase the sense of presence in immersive VEs, it may also be an effective tool to tune the affective appraisal of desktop VEs. This study investigated if exposure to ambient odor can modulate the affective appraisal of a desktop VE with signs of public disorder.

Method

Participants explored a desktop VE representing a suburban neighborhood with signs of public disorder (neglect, vandalism and crime), while being exposed to either room air or subliminal levels of unpleasant (tar) or pleasant (cut grass) ambient odor. Whenever they encountered signs of disorder they reported their safety related concerns and associated affective feelings.

Results

Signs of crime in the desktop VE were associated with negative affective feelings and concerns for personal safety and personal property. However, there was no significant difference between reported safety related concerns and affective connotations in the control (no-odor) and in each of the two ambient odor conditions.

Conclusion

Ambient odor did not affect safety related concerns and affective connotations associated with signs of disorder in the desktop VE. Thus, semantic congruency between ambient odor and a desktop VE may not be sufficient to influence its affective appraisal, and a more realistic simulation in which simulated objects appear to emit scents may be required to achieve this goal.

Associations of adult physical activity with perceived safety and police-recorded crime: the Multi-ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis

BACKGROUND

Due to the inconsistent findings of prior studies, we explored the association of perceived safety and police-recorded crime measures with physical activity.

METHODS

The study included 818 Chicago participants of the Multiethnic Study of Atherosclerosis 45 to 84 years of age. Questionnaire-assessed physical activity included a) transport walking; b) leisure walking; and c) non-walking leisure activities. Perceived safety was assessed through an interviewer-administered questionnaire. Police-recorded crime was assessed through 2-year counts of selected crimes (total and outdoor incivilities, criminal offenses, homicides) per 1000 population. Associations were examined using generalized estimating equation logistic regression models.

RESULTS

Perceiving a safer neighborhood was positively associated with transport walking and perceiving lower violence was associated with leisure walking. Those in the lowest tertile of total or outdoor incivilities were more likely to report transport walking. Models with both perceived safety and police-recorded measures of crime as independent variables had superior fit for both transport walking and leisure walking outcomes. Neither perceived safety nor police-recorded measures of crime were associated with non-walking leisure activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Perceived and police-recorded measures had independent associations with walking and both should be considered in assessing the impact of neighborhood crime on physical activity.

Does availability of physical activity and food outlets differ by race and income? Findings from an enumeration study in a health disparate region

BACKGROUND

Low-income, ethnic/racial minorities and rural populations are at increased risk for obesity and related chronic health conditions when compared to white, urban and higher-socio-economic status (SES) peers. Recent systematic reviews highlight the influence of the built environment on obesity, yet very few of these studies consider rural areas or populations. Utilizing a CBPR process, this study advances community-driven causal models to address obesity by exploring the difference in resources for physical activity and food outlets by block group race and income in a small regional city that anchors a rural health disparate region. To guide this inquiry we hypothesized that lower income and racially diverse block groups would have fewer food outlets, including fewer grocery stores and fewer physical activity outlets. We further hypothesized that walkability, as defined by a computed walkability index, would be lower in the lower income block groups.

METHODS

Using census data and GIS, base maps of the region were created and block groups categorized by income and race. All food outlets and physical activity resources were enumerated and geocoded and a walkability index computed. Analyses included one-way MANOVA and spatial autocorrelation.

RESULTS

In total, 49 stores, 160 restaurants and 79 physical activity outlets were enumerated. There were no differences in the number of outlets by block group income or race. Further, spatial analyses suggest that the distribution of outlets is dispersed across all block groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Under the larger CPBR process, this enumeration study advances the causal models set forth by the community members to address obesity by providing an overview of the food and physical activity environment in this region. This data reflects the food and physical activity resources available to residents in the region and will aid many of the community-academic partners as they pursue intervention strategies targeting obesity.

Environmental factors influencing older adults' walking for transportation: a study using walk-along interviews

Background

Current knowledge on the relationship between the physical environment and walking for transportation among older adults (≥ 65 years) is limited. Qualitative research can provide valuable information and inform further research. However, qualitative studies are scarce and fail to include neighborhood outings necessary to study participants’ experiences and perceptions while interacting with and interpreting the local social and physical environment. The current study sought to uncover the perceived environmental influences on Flemish older adults’ walking for transportation. To get detailed and context-sensitive environmental information, it used walk-along interviews.

Methods

Purposeful convenience sampling was used to recruit 57 older adults residing in urban or semi-urban areas. Walk-along interviews to and from a destination (e.g. a shop) located within a 15 minutes’ walk from the participants’ home were conducted. Content analysis was performed using NVivo 9 software (QSR International). An inductive approach was used to derive categories and subcategories from the data.

Results

Data were categorized in the following categories and subcategories: access to facilities (shops & services, public transit, connectivity), walking facilities (sidewalk quality, crossings, legibility, benches), traffic safety (busy traffic, behavior of other road users), familiarity, safety from crime (physical factors, other persons), social contacts, aesthetics (buildings, natural elements, noise & smell, openness, decay) and weather.

Conclusions

The findings indicate that to promote walking for transportation a neighborhood should provide good access to shops and services, well-maintained walking facilities, aesthetically appealing places, streets with little traffic and places for social interaction. In addition, the neighborhood environment should evoke feelings of familiarity and safety from crime. Future quantitative studies should investigate if (changes in) these environmental factors relate to (changes in) older adults’ walking for transportation.

Environmental perceptions and objective walking trail audits inform a community-based participatory research walking intervention

BACKGROUND

Given the documented physical activity disparities that exist among low-income minority communities and the increased focused on socio-ecological approaches to address physical inactivity, efforts aimed at understanding the built environment to support physical activity are needed. This community-based participatory research (CBPR) project investigates walking trails perceptions in a high minority southern community and objectively examines walking trails. The primary aim is to explore if perceived and objective audit variables predict meeting recommendations for walking and physical activity, MET/minutes/week of physical activity, and frequency of trail use.

METHODS

A proportional sampling plan was used to survey community residents in this cross-sectional study. Previously validated instruments were pilot tested and appropriately adapted and included the short version of the validated International Physical Activity Questionnaire, trail use, and perceptions of walking trails. Walking trails were assessed using the valid and reliable Path Environmental Audit Tool which assesses four content areas including: design features, amenities, maintenance, and pedestrian safety from traffic. Analyses included Chi-square, one-way ANOVA's, multiple linear regression, and multiple logistic models.

RESULTS

Numerous (n = 21) high quality walking trails were available. Across trails, there were very few indicators of incivilities and safety features rated relatively high. Among the 372 respondents, trail use significantly predicted meeting recommendations for walking and physical activity, and MET/minutes/week. While controlling for other variables, significant predictors of trail use included proximity to trails, as well as perceptions of walking trail safety, trail amenities, and neighborhood pedestrian safety. Furthermore, while controlling for education, gender, and income; for every one time per week increase in using walking trails, the odds for meeting walking recommendations increased 1.27 times, and the odds for meeting PA recommendation increased 3.54 times. Perceived and objective audit variables did not predict meeting physical activity recommendations.

CONCLUSIONS

To improve physical activity levels, intervention efforts are needed to maximize the use of existing trails, as well as improve residents' perceptions related to incivilities, safety, conditions of trail, and amenities of the walking trails. This study provides important insights for informing development of the CBPR walking intervention and informing local recreational and environmental policies in this southern community.

Active living for rural children: community perspectives using PhotoVOICE

BACKGROUND

Active living integrates physical activity into one's daily routine. Current understanding of active living among children and their families living in rural communities is limited. A community perspective is critical to understand the contextual factors that influence children's physical activity in rural areas.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to identify the perceived environmental factors that support or hinder physical activity among rural children to develop testable hypotheses to inform future interventions for reducing unhealthy weight gain and preventing chronic diseases associated with physical inactivity.

METHODS

PhotoVOICE was used to explore active living opportunities and barriers for children living in four low-income, rural U.S. communities. In 2007, parents (n=99) and elementary school staff (n=17) received disposable cameras to document their perspective. Using their photographs and narratives, participants developed emergent themes during a facilitated group discussion. In 2008, study authors used the Analysis Grid for Environments Linked to Obesity (ANGELO) framework to categorize the themes.

RESULTS

Microenvironment themes include physical (e.g., natural features, topography); sociocultural (e.g., isolation); policy (e.g., time for school recess); and economic (e.g., funding for physical activity programs). Macroenvironmental themes related to the built and natural environments and transportation infrastructure.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified rural environment elements that community members perceived as influencing children's physical activity patterns. Certain aspects were unique to rural areas, whereas other urban and suburban factors may be generalizable to rural settings. PhotoVOICE was a useful participatory research method to gain insight into perceived factors affecting rural children's physical activity behaviors.

Physical activity interventions and changes in perceived home and facility environments

OBJECTIVE

To examine changes in environmental perceptions over time and associations between changes in perceptions and physical activity among participants in two physical activity interventions.

METHODS

Two independent trials were examined. Project STRIDE (STRIDE) (N=239) was conducted from 2000 to 2004 in Rhode Island. Step into Motion (SIM) (N=249) was conducted from 2003 to 2006 in Rhode Island and Pennsylvania. Both trials tested various delivery channels for providing individually tailored motivational materials to increase physical activity among sedentary adults. Neither intervention aimed to change perceptions of the environment. At baseline, 6, and 12 months, surveys assessed physical activity and perceived facility and home equipment availability.

RESULTS

In both trials, perceived facility availability increased from baseline to 6 months. Significant increases continued from 6 to 12 months in SIM only. Increases were not significantly different by treatment group. Perceived home equipment availability also increased from baseline to 6 months in both trials and from 6 to 12 months in SIM only. In STRIDE, greater increases were observed for intervention compared to control participants. Increased facility and home equipment availability were associated with increased minutes of physical activity in both trials.

CONCLUSIONS

Perceived facility and home equipment availability improved during participation in two individual-level physical activity interventions.

The Active Living Research program: six years of grantmaking

Changes in policies and built environments are advocated as part of efforts to increase physical activity, but in 2001 the knowledge base to inform these changes was limited. The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation addressed this deficit by initiating Active Living Research (ALR). The mission of ALR was to stimulate and support research that could guide the improvement of environments, policies, and practices to promote active living. The program's goals were to (1) build the evidence base about environmental and policy factors related to physical activity, (2) build the capacity of researchers in multiple fields to collaborate, and (3) inform and facilitate policy change. To build the evidence base, 121 grants were supported with $12.5 million. Efforts were made to support new investigators, fund investigators from numerous disciplines, and increase the demographic diversity of researchers. Activities to build capacity to conduct collaborative research included annual conferences, journal supplements, seminars for multiple disciplines, and the posting of environmental measures. Coordination with Active Living Leadership was a primary means of communicating research to policymakers. Other activities to facilitate the application of research included research summaries written for nonresearchers, collaborations with Active Living by Design, several components of the website (www.activelivingresearch.org), and using policy relevance as a funding criterion. Two independent evaluations were accomplished, and they concluded that ALR made progress on all three goals. ALR has been renewed through 2012. The new mission is to use a $15.4 million research budget to contribute to reversing the childhood obesity epidemic, especially among youth in the highest-risk groups.